
Class _IE^3-Z 

Book__iiiig_ 



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CCHIUGHT DEPOSIT 



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THK NATIONS (iKEAT EXPAXDERS. 



PICTORIAL HISTORY 



OF 



America's New Possessions 

THE ISTHMIAN CANALS AND THE 
PROBLEM OF EXPANSION 

COMPRISING SIX BOOKS IN ONE VOLUME 

Being a History and Description of Each of Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii, • 
The Philippines, Isthmian Canals, and a Discussion of 
THE Problem of Expansion. 



Giving Ihc Story of the Policy of the F-armer Fathers, IVho, -wilh the Rifle, and the Axe, and the Plow, 
Moved IVest the Center of Population, and Made Necessary 

MORE LAND FOR THE PEOPLE 

With Chapters im the Piilicy of American Expansion, Contributed by 

President William McKinley Senator Cushman K. Davis Representative J. P. Dolliver 

Ex-Pres. Grover Cleveland Senator William E. Mason Representative Henry R. Gibson 

Ex-Pres. Benjamin Harrison Senator Henry C. Lodge Representative James R. Mann 

Col. William J. Bryan Senator George F. Hoar Andrew Carnegie 

Carl Schurz Henry Waterson 

P.Y 

MURAT HALSTEAD 

Jutbor of *' Tbe Story of the PhilippDns," " FuU Ojfinj/ Hislorv of ihc iVar IVttb Spam" etc., etc. 

EACH OF THE SIX BOOKS IN THE VOLUME SPLENDIDLY ILLUSTRATED 
WITH MANY BEAUTIFUL HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS. 

FOUR OFFICIALLY ACCURATE MAPS IN COLORS 



SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION ONLY 



THE DOMINION COMPANY 

PUBLISHER FINE BOOKS 

CHICAGO, U.S. A. 



Sc'. 



lo-.. 





40852 



Copyrighted, 1898, by 

H. L, BARBER, 

Chicago, Ml., U. S.A. 



iWOUOPi^v HtC&lvbk-' 




The en^ravines in this volume were 
made from original photographs, and 
arc specially protected by copyright; and 
notice is hereby given, that any person 
or persons guilty of reproducing or in- 
fringing upon the copyright in any way 
will bo dealt with according to law 



V^^^'feV -WviP^.^Ov '^ ^c 



JnscviUcrt 

^0 tl}c farmer ^at{]crs of tijc 
^vepul1[ic of tl^c llnitcb States, 
Cl]c €.vpan6cr5 of our Pominions 
IPitl? 2\i>jfjt anb IViuyhi, 
iIompclHttcn dipilisatton untl? 
Zhc a.xe, tlic Hifle anb the piou?, 
illopin^ Wat ilic tenter of Population 
®f tfje ©lorious Nation 
3u Ujc Course tfje Poet=PropIjets 
illarkeb on tl)e Soil anb in tE)e 5Uy 
^or tfjc Stars of (Empire, 
(Siinncj Oceans for Sounbaries 
(Df tf^c Canb proribeb for 
tH}ck (£I)il6ren, 
VOitlj tlje Policy of Hem possessions 
Beyonb tlie Seas, 
3nclubin^ tf)e (Treasure 3slanbs 
©f all tfje .gones of the 
ITortfjern f^emispljcre 
^or ail tfje People of Qll the States 
Ctccorbinoi to tlje £oaic of 
ilistory anb tl)e Puty of Pestiny. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 



This Pictorial History of Our New Possessions is a growth of current history. 
We were rushed into the war with Spain hy the irrational obstinacy of the Spaniards, 
who were embarrassed by a Dynasty and a Tradition. The Dynasty was repre- 
sented by an Austrian woman, tlie Queen Eegent, a good mother with a strong 
sense of personal dignity and public duty, and her baby boy, the son of the Spanish 
King who lost the girl wife of his youtli and married a Grand Duchess of Austria 
for reasons of state. This youth, the child king, with the good woman his mother, 
appealed to Spanish chivalry and the pride of the race, the widowed mother and 
infant king being in their weakness stronger as the representatives of royalty than 
any strong man could have been. Spain has been unhappy in her revolutionary 
elements, and the constant threat of the joretender Don Carlos, and his adherents 
who hold him to be the legitimate and only constitutional monarch of the penin- 
sula. The Spanish dynasty in evidence has, therefore, been menaced on one 
side by a desperate body of murderous anarchists in the cities on the Mediter- 
ranean and the Atlantic, with just grievances enough to sustain a cause of rebel- 
lion, but whose remedies for wrongs have been the "greater wrong of the dissolu- 
tion of the kingdom and the assassination of the organizers of order; and on the 
other side the agricultural districts of the Biscayan provinces and on the borders 
of the Pyrenees, the sturdy peasants whose ancient loyalty to the royal house 
commands them to he Carlists have been as a dark cloud. Thus there has been 
peril to the dynasty in the seaboard cities and the mountain gorges. The general 
sense of the heads of the Spanish Government, and tlie common instinct of the 
masses of the population, could not deal unencumbered with the devouring ques- 
tions evolved for the Peninsula by the insurrections in Cuba; and the impending 
close of the Spanish career in that island coiild not be permitted to appear in the 
light and be reckoned with on its merits, for the Carlists and other disorderlies 
were ready to take advantage of every misfortune — the inflammation of any pique 
of the people or prejudice vehement as shifty to overthrow the dynasty. The 
Tradition, holding on with all the force of an inveterate superstition, of Spain, 
was the vanity of dominion, and the i)olitical inability of the country to under- 
stand that the logic of the story of the independence of Mexico, Central and 

9 



10 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

Southern America, applied with irresistible force to the islands belonging to Spain 
in the East and the West Indies; and that the attraction of gravitation of the United 
States would soon determine the destiny of Porto Rico and Cuba at least. The 
stern old Spanish style had its latest embodiment in Cuba in Captain-General 
Weyler; and the plausible proclamations of benevolent policy of General Blanco 
were too late. In the midst of an extensive assortment of explosions came the 
blowing up of the Elaine, and war flamed forth suddenly, though the cause had 
existed, flagrant, for two generations; and the consequence could have been fore- 
seen with glasses taking into account the elemental disturbances of the forward 
march of mankind, for many years, as certainly as tlie oscillating mercury visible 
in glass tubes, tells of the coming cyclone. Blanco's Cuban experiences, instead of 
being that of pacificator and conquerer was confined to the evacuation of boasted 
fortifications, and his only success w-ere his embarkation for Spain without being 
personally involved in the official ceremonies of inevitable surrender. "We, the 
people of the United States," won by force of arms and the magnetism of our 
national prestige, the Spanish possessions in the West Atlantic and the West 
Pacific Oceans, on the American and Asiatic borders, and the momentum of the 
transfer carried with it the complications of the obstinately lingering obstacles to 
the final official occupation and possession -of the Hawaiian Islands, pleasantly and 
properly termed in a popular way "The Paradise of the Pacific." The current 
of our conquests was overwhelming, and the nations of the earth,, the great powers 
of Europe especially included, gave the great Republic all the recognition possible 
liy monarchial form and imperial deference, to a position grand as that of England, 
Germany or Russia. We took our place among the highest and foremost. Xeither 
during the war in the waters and on the shores of the two Indies, one of which 
Columbus discovered while dreaming of the other, nor while peace making was 
going on in Paris Ijetween the American and Spanish commissioners, could Spain 
find help to aid her in the successive stages of her downfall. It was a war between 
one of the quick nations and one of the dead. Our vital forces controlled the 
essential situations, and the consummation was the cession of Porto Rico, the 
relinquishment of sovereignty over Cuba, and the consent that we had conquered 
and should dispose of the Philippines. 

This Volume of Six Books In One gives the story ancient and recent of the 
ricli, beautiful and wholesome Island of Porto Rico, a possession amply worth 
all the war has cost us, leaving the rest clear gain. Wc find in this island, where 
the people were assured of the directness and permanence of the establishment of 
the sovereignty of the United States, contentment and peace, the good will of 



AUTHOR'S PEEFACE. 11 

the people in many ways manifested. It would have been a large advantage if 
our titles to Cuba and Luzon had been equally clear and perfected in the course 
of possession. Then we should not have been compelled to employ the varied 
process of preparing by predominating force, stable forms of Government for the 
mixed and difficult populations of our conquests. We have been at fault in a 
tenderness about the word "conquest," as if we had a square mile of laud that 
we obtained with the "consent of the natives," with, perhaps, the exception of 
the tract for which that subtle statesman, William Penn, signed a treaty with the 
Indians. Here the exception beautifully and formidably emphasizes the rule. We 
have to overcome the demonstrations of disaffection by the factions and the tribes, 
the soldiers of fortune and the adventurers in conspiracy, of Cuba and Luzon. 
In both were prepared elaborate pretenses of Government constructed for specula- 
tive purposes or experiments in local and native tyranny, by those who as insur- 
gents were enabled to hide their public character in the swamps and thickets 
of tropical forests until liberated by our triumphant arms. The people, so far as 
the inhabitants are worthy to be called by the name that distinguishes our own 
pre-eminent and sovereign power, the true people of Ciiba and Luzon, are turning 
to us for protection from the petty despots who desire to succeed to the privileges 
and emoluments and persecuting cruelties that distinguished the domination of 
the discomforted Spaniards. It is our business, having driven off one swarm of 
bloodsuckers, to dispose of — using all necessary force to make the disposition 
final — those whose greedy and shameless ferocity appears in claiming on grounds 
not merely insufficient but outlandish, profligate and barbaric, the Spanish suc- 
cession to be continued and executed with reckless selfishness. That the Amer- 
icans may make way for the liberty of the inhabitants of our new possessions, they 
must do as was done in Manila when that city was stormed, the American forces 
driving the Spanish army into the walled city to be prisoners, with one hand, and 
wiping the Filipino horde, that were rabid for plunder and slaughter, into the 
jungles, with the other hand. AVe had a larger duty of this sort to accomplish, 
and, unfortunately, it has cost Ijlood. Every drop of the blood of our country- 
men so shed seals an everlasting covenant of our dominion over the soil that it 
sanctifies. Hawaii and Porto Rico are absolutely and forever the property of the 
United States as much as Massachusetts, Florida, New Mexico, California, Oregon 
and Alaska. There are peculiarities about the Philippines that approve more and 
more as we get better acquainted with them the conservative wisdom of the Presi- 
dent, when he declined to take upon himself the responsibility of their final fate, 
referring the whole matter to the people, and, of course, the Congress, of the United 



13 AUTHOE'S PREFACE. 

States, calling for testimony at the ends of the earth to inform the American com- 
mission in Paris, sending proclamations and orders, going to the extreme of con- 
cession to the Filipinos for the preservation of peace, even sending a civil com- 
mission to Manila to avert the conflict apprehended — the commissioners arriv- 
ing to find a state of war forced by the petty imitative tyrants of the large island. 

A book in this volume contains the attractive and enlightening matter of the 
Great Discussion that has taken place in both houses of Congress, on the platforms, 
and in tlie Press, of the engrossing and momentous question of Expansion — that 
is, the extension of the jwlicy of the farmer fathers of the greater republic of 
more land for the people, to the islands of the great oceans, and from the Arctic 
and north temperate zones far into the tropics, going far beyond American waters, 
to hold in our hands the treasure islands of Asia — tliat we confront across the 
Pacific — the choicest archipelago of the East Indies, richer in natural resources and 
less incumbered by racial miscegenation, than the West Indies. 

The Philippine problem is one of the puzzles of civilization. We have selected 
that which fills the space devoted to the Discussion of Expansion, with conscien- 
tious impartiality, guided by the desire to give each side its strongest expression, 
and that the whole should be one of the most important and attractive chapters 
ever made up of the history of our country. The list of contributors includes' the 
President, and both the living ex-Presidents of the United States, some of the 
most distinguished and brilliant members of the Senate and House of Eepre- 
seutatives, Andrew Carnegie, Carl Schurz, Henry Watterson and many others 
prominent and influential in public life. There has been no such illustration and 
exhibit as this volume comprises, in its books of the stories of the islands, over 
which half round the world our flag is flying in beauty and victory, resplendent 
under the southern constellations fluttering in the trade winds, the colors more 
radiant and the stars brighter than ever before. 

The books of our new possessions are as comprehensive as the expanded 
vision that sweeps the whole of the American horizon. 

If this grand Rcpi'blicanism is Imperialism, make the most of it, for the word 
si<Tnifies the expression and consolidation of national power — the potentiality of 
the American People. We have so broadened the field of American acliicvement 
and ambition, that we send our regiments and ships of war both east and west to 
our Xew Possessions. We have dispatched five thousand of the regular troops 
that our anarchists and sickly sentimentalists go a-weeping about, through the 
Isthmus of Suez by the canal and down the Red Sea, and the transports that took 
them return across the Pacific. Leaving one side of our continent they come back 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 13 

to the other. What a tremendous object lesson, and how full of encouragement 
for the great and greater hereafter of the nation — the proud imperial Republic of 
the people! We are as Caesar was once imagined — "bestriding this world like a 
Colossus," and the pigmies may play around our gigantic legs, if they please to 
behave themselves. We are interested alike in the Isthmus of Suez and the 
Isthmus of Darien, in the tawny deserts of one and the blue peaks of the other. 
We must in the interest of self-defense promote the completion of the essential 
•waterways of the world, the demand for which becomes obvious when one glances 
at a globe. It is needful to America that the earth may be circumnavigated in 
tropical waters. There is no longer a necessity for ships bound for Asia from 
Europe to go around the Cape of Good Hope. A map of the American Hemi- 
sphere shows where the one slim streak of earth is to be severed, so that we of 
the nation that fronts on the Atlantic and Pacific may send our navies of peace 
and war from one side of our continental land to the other without the circum- 
navigation of South America. Hence the immediate interest in our book on the 
Isthmian Canals. We do not care whether the Panama or the Nicaraguan Canal 
is first finished. We want one or both. Either would do. 

The Hon. James R, Mann, representative in Congress of a Chicago district, 
has written a history of the Expansion of the United States, the most compre- 
hensive, thoroughly particular as to records and specific in all that is of national 
interest to the people at large, that has appeared. He prefaces it with the^e words, 
when reverting to the history of the consecutive and triumphal extension of our 
boundaries: 

"We have claimed the independence of our country for less than a century 
and a quarter. When Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence 
the extent of the territory claiming freedom under it was but little more than 
400,000 square miles in area. Now our national sovereignty extends over nearly 
4,000,000 square miles, '\\lience has come this increase? How have we acquired 
this territory? What is the history of this wonderful acquisition of national 
domain? 

"The school children of our land are taught with careful exactness the history 
of the discovery by Columbus; of the voyages of the Cabots; of the landing 
of De Soto; of the charter granted by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Walter Raleigh; of 
the story of the Pilgrim Fathers and their landing at Plymouth Rock; of James- 
town and the early settlements in Virginia; of the discovery and exploration of the 
Hudson River; of the patent of Maryland granted by Charles I. to Lord Baltimore; 
of the founding of the city of Providence, in Rhode Island, by Roger Williams, 



14 



AUTHOK'S PREFACE. 



and the settlement of Pennsylvania by the Quakers under the lead of William 
Penn, and their gentle amity with the Indians. 

"Every school history is full of information concerning the settlement and 
growth of the colonies which became the thirteen original States. We are all 
familiar with the story of the war of the Revolution. We have all recited the 
speech of Patrick Henry. We talk glibly about the principles declared by the 
Declaration of Independence and the provisions of the National Constitution. But 
what about the history of the growth of our country from an area of 400,000 
to 4,000,000 square miles? And yet there is no more fascinating story in the 
world's history. 

"The little strip of territory along the Atlantic Ocean, with its sparse settle- 
ments, nowhere reaching the Gulf of Mexico, only touching the system of the 
Great Lakes, and barely crossing the Allegheny Mountains, has now expanded 
until it reaches from ocean to ocean, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico; 
until it has added to its charmed domain the great coast line of the Xortherr 
Pacific Ocean and the Islands of Hawaii." 

We commend this book of the glorious growth of our country, as one that 
should be in all the libraries and all the schools. It is the true and full story 
of the expansion of the nation and fitly crowns the ilajestic Edifice of American 
History. 




CONTENTS. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 7 

BOOK I. --PORTO RICO. 

INTRODUCTION 29-31 

CHAPTER I. 

THE CONQUEST OF PORTO RICO. 

The Island Is Ours Without the Annoyance of the Wolves and Wildcats 
of Philii^pine Politics — Porto Rico Determined Upon as a Second 
Objective Point in the War with Spain in the AVestern Hemisphere 
— Correspondence Between General Miles and the War Department 
Relative to the Porto Rican Campaign — Long to Sampson — The 
President Interposes, and Sampson and Miles Are Satisfied — Miles 
Leads the Campaign, and It Progresses Smoothly, with Little Loss. . . .33-41 

CHAPTER II. 

PORTO RICO, OUR ANTILLEAN POSSESSION. 

Size of Island in Comparison and in Figures — Comparison of the Island 
with Cuba — Porto Ricans a Better Class of People than Are the 
Cubans — Island Has Not Suffered from Spanish Rule as Much as 
Has Cuba — One of the Fairest Gems of the Ocean — American Flag 
Raised Over the Island Amid the Cheering of the People — Revenue 
and E.xpenses of the Island Government — Island Rich in Costly 
Native Woods — Home of the Tropical Fruits — Scarcity of Wild 
Animal Life, but Pestiferous Insects Are Plentiful — Rich in 
Minerals — E.xtensive Commerce with the Great Nations — Coffee, 
Sugar and Tobacco Leading Products and Exports — Healthiest 
Climate in the Antilles — In Density of Population Ranks First 
in the West Indies — Extracts from United States Military Notes — 
Soil and Climate — Wet and Dry Seasons — Breezes, Winds and 
Hurricanes — Principal Mountain, River and Flarbor — Cities and 
Towns — Highways and Railroads — Interesting Features of San 

Juan, the Capital and Principal Citv 43-71 

15 



16 COXTE.XTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

EARLY DESCETPTTONS OF PORTO RICO. 

Instructive Dopcription of tlie Island Si.xty-four Yeans Ago by Colonel 
Flinter of the British Army and Spanish Servici — More from the 
Same Writer Quoted by the London Review — Valuable Statistics 
from tlie Edinburgh Review — Rev. "Wm. Cloister Adds Interesting 
Infornuition — Xatural Resources, Commercial Advantages and 
Physical Conditions Clearly Described — Social and Moral Standing 
of the People Fully Considered — Testimony That Reveals the 
Value of Our Insular Gem 73-87 

CHAPTER IV. 

RECEXT DESCRIPTIOXS OF THE ISLAXD. 

Interesting Letter from a Scientist and Business Man, Giving an Account 
of the Island's Flora^Valuable Infornuition About the Products 
and Exports, Gathered by C. W. Eves — Scientific American Quoted 
— Interesting Account of the Hurricanes, by Frederick D. Ober — 
Value of the Island's Imports — Estaljlishment of Electric Tram- 
ways — Possibilities for Coffee and Sugar Production — A Glowing 
Tribute to the Island, by James Rodway 88-105 

BOOK II.--CUBA. 

IXTRODUCTIOX 109-111 

CHAPTER 1. 
CUBA AFTER THE WAR. 

The Changes of Three Years in Cuba — Recollection of the Weyler 
Period — The Fiery Invasion of Western Cuba by Gomez — The Fall 
of Maceo and Decline of the Flood of Rebellion — American Inter- 
vention and Spanish Retirement — The Stars and Stripes Over 
Jlorro Castle and the Governor's Palace — -The Spaniards' Farewell 
to Havana — Wild Cuban Rejoicing — Spanish and Cuban Comlnna- 
tion Against American Rule — Gomez fleets a Special Commissioner 
and Listens to Reason — His Trium])hant Journey to Havana and 
Ovation in the City — He Does Xot Speak at the Banquet of Cuban 
Celebration — Spectacular Scenes in the Old Sjianish Capital — The 
Prestige of Gomez Challenged by the Hysterical Cuban Assembly 
— He is Removed from His Command of the Army for Opposing 



CONTENTS. 17 

the Creation of a Great Public Debt AVithout Value Eeceived 
for the People— The Splendid Letter with Which He Thanked 
the Assembly for Relieving Him of Responsibility — The People 
' Are with Him — As a Pacificator He Is a Statesman — The Catas- 
trophe to Spain of the Loss of Cuba — Her Golden Island in the 
Summer Seas — The Land of Promise for the Favorites of a 
Corrupt Government in the Details of Administration — The 
Harvest Field for the Degenerate of a Nation Fallen from the First 
Place — Did Not Occur AVithout Abundant Admonition, and Yet 
Seemed to the Spectators a Surprise in Suddenness 1 13-140 

CHAPTER II. 

THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

Official Information About the Island That Is of the Greatest Importance 
to Public Intelligence — Some Historical Facts — The Insurrections 
and Rebellions That Have Prevented the Development of the 
Island's Resources — The Military and Civil Governments — Climate, 
Soil and Productions — Sanitary Conditions and Prevailing 
Diseases — Abundance of Pestiferous Insects — Extensive Mineral 
Resources — Island Abounds in A'aluable AA'oods — Classification of 
the Inliabitants 1 il-lGS 

CHAPTER III. 

THE CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 

Santiago de Cuba the Ancient City of the Island — Location and Com- 
mercial Importance — Its Strategic Position and Defenses as Set 
Forth in the United States Military Notes — Havana the Capital 
and Largest City in Cuba— Its Defenses, A\"ater Supply and 
Sanitary Condition — The Density of Population — Matanzas the 
Third City in Population 164-173 

BOOK I1I.--HAWA11. 

INTRODUCTION 177-180 

CHAPTER L 

HAWAII AS ANNEXED. 

The Star-Spangled Banner L^'p Again in Hawaii, and to Stay — Dimensions 
of the Island — AAliat the Missionaries Have Done — Religious 
Belief by Nationality — Trade Statistics — Latest Census — Sugar 
Plantation Laborers — Coinage of Silver — Schools — Coffee Growing. .181-191 



18 COXTEXTS. 

CHAPTER II. 
THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

Report of the Hawaiian Commission — Description of the Islands — Their 
Resources — Commerce — Character of Their People — Detail of the 
Territorial Government — Recommended and Most Valuable Olficial 
Reports of the Features of Civilization and Material Resource? of 
the Islands 192-243 

CHAPTER III. 

EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

Captain James Cook's Great Discoveries and His Martyrdom — Character 
and Traditions of the Hawaiian Islands — Charges Against the 
Famous Navigator, and Effort to Array the Christian World 
Against Him — The True Story of His Life and Death — How 
Charges Against Cook Came to Be Made — Testimony of Van- 
couver, King and Dixon, and Last Words of Cook's Journal — Light 
Turned on History That Has Become Obscure — Savagery of the 
Natives — Their Written Language Took Up Their High Colored 
Traditions and Preserved Phantoms — Scenes in Aboriginal The- 
atricals — Problem of Government in an Archipelago Where Race 
Questions Are Predominant — Now Americans Should Remember 
Captain Cook as an Illustrious Pioneer 243-268 

BOOK 1V.--THE PHILIPPINES. 

INTRODUCTION -iri-SU 

CHAPTER I. 

OUR INTEREST IN THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 

Character of Filipinos and Their Oppression by the Si)aniards — The 
Furtive Leader Aguinaldo — His Professions and Proceedings — 
Cash for Peace and a Bribe for Banishment — Early Indications 
of Impertinence — Deception of Our Consuls 275-283 

CHAPTER IT. 

TIIF. IMPORTANT STATEMENT 01" Till". BELGIAN CONSUL AT 

MANILA. 

The True Inwardness of the Philippine Situation by a Friend of Admiral 
Dewey, Mr. Andre, Belgian Consul at Manila — A Letter from 



COXTEXTS. 19 

Andrew Carnegie That Is One of His Mistakes — General Merritt's 
Ojoinions at Paris — Mr. Andre's Memorandum in Full — Leading 
People of Manila Wish to Become Citizens of the United States — 
How General Merritt Drew the Line on Aguinaldo and Foretold 
the Way Trouble Would Come 384-295 

CHAPTFR IIL 

THE MOST NOTABLE OF THE STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR 

COMMISSIOX IX PARIS. 

The Remarkable L'tterance of ilr. John Foreman, the Historian of the 
Philipijines — His Exposures of Spanish Tyranny and the Persecu- 
tion of the Poor — He Credits Stories About the Immorality of 
Spanish Priests and Gives Them — The Grievances of the Philip- 
pine Peasant.* — Extent of Spanish Occupation — Resources of the 
Islands — Habits of the People — Their Weakness and Strength — 
Vast Amount of Information and Suggestion — General Whittier's 
Personal Observation — His Interview with Aguinaldo and Judg- 
ment as to the Philippine Riches and Possibilities 296-319 

CHAPTER IV. 
RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

Memorandum of the ]\Iineral Resources of the Islands by Dr. Becker 
of the United States Geological Survey, Gathered for the 
American Treaty Commission — Coal, Petroleum, Gold, Copper, 
Lead, Silver, Iron, Quicksilver, Sulphur, Marble, Kolin, Pearl 
Fisheries — Strategic Importance — Cebu and Xegros Islands — 
Xaval Stations — Harbors 320-3.56 

BOOK V.--ISTHMIAN CANALS. 

IXTRODUCTIOX 3.59-360 

CHAPTFR I. 

THE paxa:\ia CAXAL. 

The Two Mediterraneans — The Era of Enterprise in the World's Water- 
ways — The Xew Panama Company — Immense Work Done — 
Steady Prosecution of the Task — More than Three Thousand Men 
Employed in Excavating — The Curiously Interesting Story of the 
Canal — The Misfortune of the De Lesseps Failure Xot Final — 
Facts and Figures That Should Restore the Faded Interest of the 
American People 361-413 



2C CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

THE SUEZ CAXAL. 

TliL' ilonument of Disraeli and De Lesseps That, Though of Shifting 
^'aturc in Shifting Sand, Is More Imjierisliahle tlian Marble or 
Brass or Any Towering Structure Reared liy Human Hands — Whsxt 
the Great Engineer, De Lesseps, Who, Though He Subsequently 
Made a Failure, Did Enough for Immortality, Had to Say — The 
Suez Canal the Grandest Work of I'ublie Improvement in the 
Most Progressive Century — The Dramatic History Without a 
Parallel as a Scheme of Daring Scientific Fancy or Realization 
of Golden Dividends 414-432 

CHAPTER III. 
THE NICARAGUA CANAL. 

Senator Morgan's Strong Plea for an American Canal — The Claim that 
the Nicaragua Route, Though Longer than the Panama, Is More 
Practicable — Estimates of Enormous Special Advantages to 
America, Both Military and Commercial — Some Interesting State- 
ments of the Costs and Profits of the Suez Canal and Their 
Bearing Upon the Nicaragua Canal — The Shares That the British 
Bought in the Suez Canal for £4,000,000 Are Worth £20,000,000— 
The Opposition to the Nicaragua Line in Congress Is Rather 
Against the Maritime Coinpany than Opposed to the Enterprise 
Itself — The Views of Senators Pettigrew, Cafl'ery and Teller 433-439 



BOOK V1.--PR0BLEA\ OF EXPANSION. 

IXTRODUCTIOX 443-447 

CHAPTER I. 
PRESIDENT MTvINLEY FOR EXPANSION. 

The Weighty Unexpected Problems Before the Country — Not Our Fault 
that They Im])ose High Obligation^He Opposed War — No Nation 
Insisting Upon War Can Foretell the Story of It — The President 
Cannot Fix the Boundaries of Events — We Could Not Give Up 
Our Conquests to Spain— The Philippines Had to Go to Spain 
or Be Held by Us — We Did Not Need the Consent of the Filipinos 
to a Work of Humanity — The Future of the Philippines Is in the 
Hands of the American People — No Imperial Designs Lurk in the 



CONTENTS. 21 

American !Miiid — The Free Can Conquer But to Save— The 
Blood}' Trenches Bring Anguish to His Heart — The Filipinos 
Will Be Grateful for American Civilization 449-455 

CHAPTER II. 

ANDEEW CAENEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

Mr. Carnegie Assails the President and the Secretary of the Treasury 
for Changing Their Opinions as to Expansion — Doubts the 
President's Convictions, and Says Gage Is Not a Manufacturer — 
Carnegie Desires Commercial E.xpansion — He Wants the President 
to Listen to the London Times — The Open Door Will Antagonize 
American Labor — Predicts Death Blow to "Imperialism'" — Says 
No Citizen Can Be Deprived of the Eight to Send His Products 
to Any Territory Lnder Our Flag Free of All Tariffs Within the 
Eepublic's Domain — Trade of Philippines Cannot Be American — 
Spain Gets $20,000,000 for a Great Eelief— Tribute to the Personal 
Virtues of the President — A Reply to Mr. Murat Halstead's 
Address at Homestead 454-467 

CHAPTEE III. 

SENATOE CrSHMAN K. DAVIS FOE EXPANSION. 

The Distinguished Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign 
Relations and Member of the Peace Commission Declares His 
Position — The American People Have Made an Immeasurable 
Advance Within a Year — The President's Good Work — The 
Story of the Making of the Treaty of Peace — No Warning 
that Americans Claimed Too Much — Filipinos Not Ready for 
Sovereignty Over Civilized People — Historical Antecedents oi 
Expansion — The Question What We Shall Do with the Philippine 
Archipelago Not Yet L'pon Us — It Will Be Fair and Honorable 468-474 

CHAPTER IV. 

COLONEL W. J. BRYAN. 

Astonished that Any American Citizen Would Uphold the Doctrine of 
Gaining Land by Conquest — He Could Have Told McKinley to 
Take Care Not to Confide in Public Opinion Formed at the Rear 
of a Car — Imperialism Wanted to Exercise Sovereignty Over an 
Alien Race — Self-Government Was Gained in the School of 
Government — No Excuse for a Colonial Policy — Mr. Gage the 
Keyhole of the Administration — The Colonial Policy Rested on 
Vicarious Enjoyment — A Call for the Ancient Law-Giver on 



22 CONTEXTS. 

Sinai — Against a Larger Army — Imperialists Confuse Their Beati- 
tudes — Not Profitable to Buy a Lawsuit — Muffle the Liberty Bell 
—Give Me Liberty or Give :\Ie Death 475-480 

CHAPTER V. 

HENEY WATTEHSOX FOP EXPAXSION. 

The Drift of the Country — The United American People — Always the 
Same, Though Divided — The Labels on the Bottles — An Anti- 
Expansion Party Would Be a Foredoomed Failure — William 
McKinley and Joseph Wheeler — Tropical Vegetation in the White 
House — Eighty Millions of People Cannot Be Passive — How Stands 
the Debate Between the Friends and Foes of Expansion? 481-486 

CHAPTEE VI. 

I 
CAEL SCHUEZ OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

Is It Our Policy that the Filipinos Shall Be Subjects or Citizens? — 
The Specifications of the New Departure We Are Taking — We 
Are Cultivating a Passion for Conquest — The Friendship of 
England Is Good to Have. Not to Need — The New Policy Demands 
a Great Standing Army — If We Have Eescued the Unhappy 
Daughters of Spain from" Tyranny We Need Not Marry the Girls. . .487-490 

CHAPTEE VII. 

MUEAT HALSTEAD FOE EXPANSION. 

Expansion Is the Doctrine of the Fathers — There Was Not a Tenth of the 
Territory We Now Possess in the Thirteen Colonies When Jefferson 
Wrote the Declaration of Independence — Andrew Jackson Was an 
Expansionist — So Was William II. Seward — Admiral Dewey Is the 
Author of Our Philippine Policy — Andrew Carnegie and British 
India — Should England Give I'p Gibraltar, Egypt and India? — 
If So, AYliy Not Ireland, Scotland and Wales? — Aguinaldo"s Exile 
witli a Certified Check — Senator Hoar's Forgetfnlness of tlie 
Essential Facts in llie Philippine Situation — The American Army 
Have Fought in Self-Defense, and in the Vindication of the Faith 
and Honor Pledged in the Final Article of the Capitulation of 
the Spaniards in :\lMiiila 491-497 

CHAPTEE VIII. 

ME. DOLLTVKE OF IOWA FOE EXPANSION. 

Boom for All Sorts of Speeclies, but Only One Course of Action — The 
President Did Not Take Initial Eesponsibility of Disturbing the 



CONTENTS. 23 

Peace — Dr. Parkhurst's Boomerang Criticism — Cheap Newspapers 
Full of Malice — Americans on Blanco's Platform — Our Experience 
with Acquired Territory — Andrew Jackson's Territorial Policy 
— Two Mourners in a Palace Over the Collapse of the Kepublic — 
Bryan's Pitched Battle with American History — Not Canned 
Freedom, but Liberty on the Half Shell — A Tribute to General 
■^lieeler — In "The Fear of God and Nothing Else," as Bismarck 
Said, Take Up Duty 498-505 

CHAPTEE IX. 
HON. HENRY GIBSON FOR EXPANSION. 
Porto Rico Is a Conquest; Are We to Give It Up on Moral Grounds? — 
There Were Croakers About Our Having Any Pacific Coast — It 
Was Six Months Away — "The Ashy Lips of Cowards and Traitors" 
— There Would Be Objections to Annexing Paradise — Do the 
Black Men Consent to Be Governed in All the States? — AAliy Say 
"Turkey" to the Yellow Heathen and "Buzzard" to the Black 
Christian? — When Did AVe Get the Consent of the Indians to 
Govern Them? — The Pilgrim Fathci's Exterminated the Natives 
of Massachusetts — God Commanded the Killing of tlie Canaanites. .50G-513 

CHAPTER X. 
SENATOR HOAR AGAINST EXPANSION. 

This Is the Greatest Question Ever Discussed by the United States 
Senate — Almost the Greatest Since the Beginning of Mankind — 
Putting the Flag Up and Down — Wanted Messages Sent to the 
Philippines— What Are We to Do with 10,000,000 Souls?— Poor 
People, Who Took Their Bows and Arrows — Aguinaldo's Master- 
pieces — Dr. Johnson on Taxation — Trampling on Foreign People ' 
— Filipinos in Arms for Liberty ■ 51.3-518 

CHAPTER XI. 

SENATOR MASON OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

"We Are Attacking People Without Arms" — "How Is the War to Be 
Concluded Without the Extermination of Those Poor People?" — 
"We Refuse to Permit the Rebel Party Men to Speak to Us"— "By 
What Authority Was Iloilo Fired Upon?"— "I Say We Made the 
Cause for War" — "We Shoot Them Down and Burn Their 
Buildings a la Weyler" — "How Long Shall Our Flag Remain 
Above an L^nwilling People?" — The Whelp of a Lion and Cesar's 
Ghost — England Never Guilty of Jlore Cruelty — All Tyrants 
Charge Cutting Off Heads to the Lord — The Whole Archipelago 
Not Worth One American Bov— We Have Tasted Blood 519-525 



24- ' COXTEXTS. 

CIIAPTEE XII. 
EX-PEESIDEXT CLEYELAXD AXD OTHERS XOT FOE EXPAXSIOX. 

Mr. 'Cleveland Thinks the Best Statesmanship Should Adhere to 
Conscience in Storm as Well as Sunshine — He Suggests We Should 
Xot Kill People Who AYould Lose Their Souls — Hon. Bourke 
Cochran Oners Objections to E.xpansion — Senator Money Takes 
a Favorable View of Aguinaldo — llr. Bland Thinks Expansion 
Means to Enslave Americans to Plutocracy — Senator Caffery Says 
There Is Xo Opportunity for an Industrious 'Wliite Man in the 
Phili])])ines — Senator Tillman Quotes Kipling — Is Aguinaldo a 
I'surper Without Consulting Anybody? — Senator Turner on Grave 
State Eeasons for Overriding the Opinion of Senator Forakcr 526-53G 

CIIAPTEE XIII. 
PEOMOTIOX AXD ADVOCACY OF EXPAXSIOX. 

Ex-President Harrison's Policy of Territorial Permanency and. Message 
on the Annexation of Hawaii — Senator Lodge Says We Succeeded 
to the Sovereignty of Spain in Manila, and Philippine Patriots 
Have Xever Been Oppressed by Any American Act — Senator 
Stewart Says Filipinos Can X'ever Come Here to Interfere with 
Labor — Senator Piatt of Connecticut Says the Doctrine of Senator 
Hoar Would Have Prevented Our Possession of the Pacific Coast 
States— General Grosvenor Vindicates General Otis — Senator Piatt 
of Xew York Says We Are Xot Forcing Our Government Upon 
an Unwilling People — Senator Foraker Says Opposition Senators 
Talk About Theory — ^Ir. Brosius of Pennsylvania Quotes a Pearl 
of Poetry — Governor Oglesby Expands — Two of Kipling's Poems 
■ ^[uch Quoted in Congress 537-552 

CHAPTER' XIV. 

THE HISTOEY OF AMEEICAN EXPAXSIOX. 

Area of Our Territory When Jefferson Wrote the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence — The Westward Course of Acquisition — The Xorthwest 
Territory Added — Accpiiring All Territory East of the Mississippi 
River — Exploring Expeditions Into Western Territory — The 
Louisiana Purchase — Views of Jefferson and Congress in 1803 — 
Annexation of Texas — Acquiring California and Xew Mexico 
— The Alaska Purchase — Expansion Opinions of Law Writers — 
Decisions of the Supreme Court on the Subject of Acquiring 
Territory — Beneficial Effects of Expansion — We Xeed X'ot Fear 
the Future, and We Dare X"ot Step Backward— The Dream of 
Columbus Will Soon Be Realized 553-614 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



1. Frontispiece — The Nation's Great Expanders. 

2. George Washington. 

3. Thomas Jefferson. 

4. Andrew Jackson. 

5. Daniel Webster. 
G. John C'!*Fremont. 

7. Henry Clay. 

8. U. S. Grant. 

9. Abraham Lincoln. 

10. Jas. G. Blaine. 

11. Wm. McKinley. 

12. City of San Juan, Porto Eico. 

1.3. Street of the Cross, San Juan, Porto Eico. 

14. A Porto Eico Poultry Vendor. 

15. Market Women of Porto Eico. 

16. A Porto Eico Country House. 

17. Sea Wall of San Juan, Porto Eico. 

18. The Princess Promenade, San Juan, Porto Eico. 

19. A Porto Eico Belle. 

20. Horses Laden with Maloja, in Matanzas, Cuba. 

21. The Yumuri Eiver at Matanzas, Cuba. 

22. The AVay Milk Is Sold and Delivered in Havana. 

23. A Fruit Vendor in ILivana. 

24. A Cuban Ploughman. 

25. Crushing Mill on a Sugar Plantation in Cuba. 

26. Waianae Coffee Nursery, Showing Young Coffee Plants, in Oahu, Hawaiian 

Islands. 

27. Famous Walk Between the Eoyal Palms in Honolulu. 

28. Nuuanu Valley Pass, Pali Peak, 1,207 Feet High. Near Honolulu. 

29. Entrance Through Grove of Tropical Trees to Queen's Hospital, Honolulu. 

30. Section of Flume for Conveying Water to Sugar Mills, Hawaii. 

31. Lava Formation at Kilauea Crater, 4,040 Feet High, Island of Hawaii 

32. Pineapple Eanch Near Pearl City, Island of Oahu, Hawaiian Islands. 

33. Flume for Conveying AVater to Sugar Mills, Hawaii. 

34. Surf Boat of the Natives, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. 

35. Travelers' Tree, Honolulu, A Plant Curiosity. 

36. Banana Plant, Hawaii, Showing Fruit on Tree. 

37. Statue of Kamehameha I, Honolulu. 

38. Princess Kaiulani at Ainahau, Honolulu. 

25 



26 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

39. Hawaiian Hula Dancers in Xative Costume. 

40. Hawaiian School Girl in Native Decorations. 

41. A Country JIarriage, Philippines, llarriage Maker and Bridal Couple in Car- 

riage, Followed by Band, on AVay to Church. 

42. Ravine of Halang. A Scene on the Road from Silang to Indang, Cavite. 

43. View Near Indang, Cavite Province, Along Tibogan River. 

44. View of the Bugasong River in the Plii]ij)pine?, Xoted for its Auriferous 

Sand. 

4.5. A Bathing Place in the Falls cf tlie Vliau y Tagbacan River, in the Philip- 
pines. 

46. Views from the Philippines. 

47. Group of Xative Dancers in Ati-Ati. 

48. Bridge Over the Lagune in Santa Cruz. 

49. Types of the Masses of the Filipinos. 

50. Grinding Xative Rice. 

51. Xative Wood Chopjiers. 

52. Women of Balagas Washing Clothes. 

53. A Sugar Cart in Batangas Province. 

54. A Shepherd of Carabaos. 

55. The Road to the Cemetery in Tansa, Province of Iloilo. 

56. Views frcm the Philippines. 

57. Royal Street in Lipa, Batangas Province. 

58. School of Arts and Commerce in Iloiln. 

59. Molo Church in Iloilo. 

(>0. xV Filipino Funeral Party in Iloilo, Grouped Around the Tomb, 

(il. A View of the San Sebastian Highway. ^Manila. 

65. Romblon- — Capital of the Island of Sn Xombre. 

63. View of the Paseo de Aguadas, Manila. 

64. Filipino Carpenters of Iloilo at Work. 

65. Landscajie View, Showing Beauty and Lu.xuriance of Vegetation in the Phil- 

ippines. 

66. Views in the Philippines, Mostly in and Around ilanila. 

67. In the Valleys of Carabao. 

(;8. A Street in the District of Paco, Manila. 

69. Aristocratic Residences in the Suburbs of San Juan del Monte. 

70. Scjuare of Santa Ana. in the District of San Sebastian, Manila. 

71. View of the Royal Highway of La Concepciou. 

72. The King's Wliarf, Manila. 

73. The Aguilar Barrier in Tondo. Manila. 

74. The Cathedral of Jaro, in Iloilo. 

75. Xative Method of Plowing. Scene in the Province of Batangas, Philippines. 

76. Mews in and Around ilanila. 

77. Street in the Suburb La Frmita. 




A PORTO RICO POULTRY VENDOR. (Copjriglited by J. M. Jordan.) 




o 

H 
U 

o 

O 



H 

W 

a: 



LIST OF ILEUSTEATIONS. 20 

78. Rosario Street in La Ermita. 

79. Luneta Square in Manila. 

80. Hospital of San Juan de Dios. 
8L ilanila Cathedral. 

82. Royal Street in ^ilalate. 

S3. Royal Street in Santa Ana. 

84. Monument of Don Simon de Anda y Salazar in the Malecon Square. 

85. Type of the Mestezo Women, Upper Class, Province of Cavite. 

86. Views from the Philippines. 

87. Wives of Chief Datto Pian of Jolo. 

88. House of Chief Datto Pian of Jolo. 

89. Barracks of the Civil Guard in La Ermita, Manila. 

90. View of Chief Datto Plan's Wagebon Ranche in Jolo. 
9L Church of the Conception in Jolo. 

92. The Weisic Barracks, Manila. 

93. Entrance to the Military Hospital, Manila. 

94. Front View of the Church of the Conception, Jolo. 

95. Rift in the Jungles That Line the Coast of the Philippines. 

96. Roadway in Botanical Gardens, Manila. 

97. View of La Escolta Street, Manila. 

98. Bathing Pool on Road to Das Marinas, at Imus, Province of Cavite. 

99. Map Showing Natural Waterways and Canal Routes, Xow and Future, to 

Our New Possessions, East and West. 

100. Jlonument at San Jose, Costa Rica, Commemorating Valor of Central Amer- 
ican Amazons in Defeating Soldiers of Walker's Filibustering Expedition. 

Itll. Official Residence of De Lesseps at Colon, Colombia. 

102. Coffee-curing Establishment, San Jose, Costa Rica. 

103. Banana Train on Line from Port Limon to San Jose, Costa Rica. 

104. Theatre at San Jose, Costa Rica. 

105. School House in San Jose, Costa Rica. 

106. View of San Juan River, Costa Rica. 

107. Pier at Greytown, Nicaragua. 

108. Coffee-curing Establishment. San Jose, Costa Rica. 
1(19. Native House, Showing Kitchen, in Masaya, Nicaragua. 

110. A Barber Shop in Masaya, Nicaragua. 

111. Panama Canal, Cut at San Pablo. 

112. Panama Canal, 14 ililes from Athmtic. 

113. Panama Canal, Culebra Cut. 

114. Panama Canal, 32 Miles from Atlantic. 

115. Banana Depot, Near Blue Fields, Nicaragua. 

116. Birdseye View of Lake ilanagua, from ilanagua, the Capital of Nicaragua. 

117. Landing at Lake Managua, Receiving Passengers from Train at Corinto, Nic- 

aragua. 

118. End of La Boca Pier at Beginning of Panama Canal. 



30 LIST OF ILLISTKATIU^'S. 

no. Panama Canal. 3 IVriles from the xVtlantic. 

]"^n. Panama Canal, 9 Jliles from Colon. 

Vil. Panama Canal, End of Culebra Cut. 

122. Panama Canal. 27 Allies from the Atlantic. 

123. Panama Canal, ■^'■> Miles' from the .\tlantic. 

124. Panama Canal, 34 Miles from Atlantic. 

125. Maj) Showing Territory Cetled and xVnnexed at Ditfereut Times to the United 

States. 

12G. Benjamin Harrison. 

127. Grover Cleveland. 

128. Senator Cushman K. Davis of Minnesota. 

129. Senator George F. Hoar of Massachusetts. 

130. Senator Henry C. Lodge of Massachusetts. 

131. Senator William E. Mason of Illinois. 

132. William J. Bryan. 

133. Carl Scluirz. 

134. Andrew Carnegie. 

135. Henry Watterson. 

] 36. Map of Porto Eico, in Colors, Prepared from Latest Oiflcial Surveys. 

137. Map of Cuba, in Colors, Prepared from Latest Official Surveys. 

138. Jlap of Hawaii, in Colors, Prepared from Latest Official Surveys. 

139. Map of the Philippines, in Colors, Prepared from Latest Official Survej'S. 

140. Cotfee-curing Establishment at San Jose, Costa Rica. 

141. The Arena, Constructed of Bamboo, in Which the Bull Fights Are Given at 

Manila. 

142. A Malay Chief of Magibon, Jolo Province, with His Family and Servitors. 

143. Native Woman's Dress, Manila. 

144. Types of Fili])ino Women. 

145. Panama Canal, Pier at La Boca. 
14(). Panama Canal, Great Culebra Cut. 
14T. Panama Canal, Culebra Cut. 

148. Panama Canal, 32 Miles from Atlantic. 

149. Steamship Passing a Dredge at Kautara, Suez Canal. 

150. Harbor at Port Said, Beginning of Suez Canal. 

151. Views Along the Suez Canal. 

152. Stone Quarry at Timsah Lake. 

153. Dam at Ismailia. 

154. View of Suez. 

155. Entrance to Suez Canal. 

15G. View of Landing at Port Said. 

157. View of Port Said Harbor. 

158. Steamers Waiting at Kautara. 

159. S. A. Tewfik Pacha. 

160. F. De Lesseps. 



BOOK I. 



PORTO RICO. 



INTRODUCTION. 



During the progress of our war with Spain, the people of the United States,, 
studying the military and naval situations, and giving critical attention to the 
movements of our fleets and armies, were well informed of the advantages of 
Porto Eico. If Spain had not been an incapable country, if her battleships and 
squadrons of gunboats and torpedo destroyers had been what they were believed 
in Europe to be, a match for our own warships and boats, Porto Eico was placed 
so as to have- been an advantageous basis of operations for the Spanish fleet; 
and if the Spaniards had been in condition to cross the Atlantic in force, this 
eastward island would have served the purpose of defending the West India 
waters and possessions of Spain, at the same time threatening our shores. It 
turned out that the degeneracy of Spanish administration had been as disastrously 
operative in the navy as the army, that the battleships were not ready in machinery 
or armament; though held to be superior to our own of the same class, were 
deficient. Spain never seriously disputed with us the mastery of the seas. This 
was a weakness that allowed the Spaniards no chance for successful defense of her 
islands. Porto Eico and Cuba were lost, unless our extemporized army could be 
used up by the rains and the fevers, and the acclimated Spaniards enabled to hold 
out in their intrenchments, fed out of the marvelously fertile soil, until the con- 
tinental monarchies should call for a suspension of hostilities on our part under 
the menace of coalition against us. We were influenced by consideration for inter- 
national o])inion and regard for our own contracted conservatism as to interference 
abroad, and the philanthropic eloquence so exuberant in our public life, to promise 
a miracle of unselfishness in our purposes so far as Cuba was concerned. The 
Cuban annexationists were complacent under the proclamations to wliich they 
did not entirely subscribe, because they had confidence in the attraction of our 
bulk, the interest of Cuba to be under our wing, as a protected province if in 
no other relation, and the geographical proprieties, so that if the Spanish yoke 
was removed the island gifted alike with natural riches and beauties, would be 
ours by the irrepressible genius of Americanism. Still we agreed the Cubans, 
not the Xew York Junta in particular exclusively, but the Cuban people at large, 

should have the option of independence; and we must make our promise good. 

35 



3C INTKODUCTION. 

Senator Hoar says there is no necessity that we should marry any of the unfortu- 
nate daughters of Spain that have been abused by their mother, but it is quite 
certain if any of the girls come to our house as Naomi to that of Boaz and say 
they are going with us and be of our people and mean to stay and be of our 
household, we will not drive them away, but allow them to find places of repose 
and take for their own use reasonable measures of barley. We shall also instruct 
the reapers in our harvest fields to leave heads of grain for them to glean and 
deny them not the comforts of hospitality, even apples, as well as barley, as we 
understand the obligations of friendship in the north temperate zone. 

Before coming into possession of Porto Eico, ceded to us by Spain, we made 
no promises to her people and consented to no conditions of limitation of our 
sovereign rights. The island is as much ours as the Louisiana purchase was wlu'ii 
we paid for it, or as Alaska and Arizona are ours. And it is gratifying to note 
that very few congressmen have wept in public over the imperialism of our 
acceptance of the ripe fruit that fell in our way as we walked under the tree. It 
is settled even if there are statesmen who feel that we have again fractured the 
Constitution of the United States, and fatally fastened ourselves to an island out 
of sight of our continental shore that Porto Rico is and shall remain our very 
own. We have got her and we will keep her. The island is the best in many 
ways in the West Indies, though not as large as Cuba or as high as Hayti. It 
is wholesome and of good report, and, with a naval station there worthy of our 
Sea-Power, we shall have an advanced post beyond Bermuda that hostile fleets, 
if any should ever move this way meaning to do us harm, will not venture to 
pass by. As to contiguity, those pleasant Danish islands, always for sale, are in 
the neighborhood. The fact is suggestive that ten cents apiece paid by the Amer- 
ican people would capture those gems of the ocean. The people of Porto Rico 
are of mixed races, and it is probable it will take them some time to assimilate 
Americanism even under the weighty expression of military authority. The deal- 
ings of the people of Porto Rico have been rather with Europeans than with 
ourselves. They will, wc hope, and wc base expectation founded upon ordinary 
human experience, trust, they will grow fonder of us as they find us out. It is an 
important point in our duty to make them feel at home under our flag and to 
soothe them if we observe restlessness in their manner when the novelty of being 
free Americans ceases to have an impressive fascination. Some of them may 
think reading certain interpretations by eloquent men of our Constitution, that it 
is a part of the contract im])lied when we took them in charge that they are to 
soon have a call to be heard in our general' government. We have firmly but kindly 



INTKODUCTION. 37 

to make known to them tliat they are mistaken. However, we have confidence 
they will be reasonable and "consent" to be governed without seeking trouble along 
lines of theory, promulgated in a spirit of benevolence by some of our eminent 
men in behalf of the Filipinos when they assaulted the American lines at Manila. 
We would advise friends in the colonies not to place a great deal of reliance upon 
the emotional element of patriotic gentlemen whose information is deficient, being 
radically erroneous. The people of Porto Eico, we are sure, will contentedly remain 
with us, partake of the bounty of our good will, consent to the investment of 
our capital in the improvement of the island, and be taught by us that they have 
not alienated but gained by our expansion including them in a liberal sense in the 
rights of man and an excellent opportunity of generous guidance in the better 
ways and means, in the language of the Declaration of Independence, for "the 
pursuit of happiness." 



CHAPTEE I. 

THE CONQUEST OF TOKTO EICO. 

The Island Is Ours Without the Annoyance of the Wolves and Wildcats of Philip- 
pine Politics — Porto Pico Determined Upon as a Second Objective Point 
in the War with Spain in the Western Hemisphere — Correspondence i5e- 
tween General Miles and the War Department Kelative to the Porto Rican 
Campaign — Long to Sampson — The President Interposes, and Sampson and 
Miles Are Satisfied — Miles Leads the Campaign, and It Progresses Smoothly 
with Little Loss. 

Porto Eico has the advantage of Leing a part of the United States without 
terms or conditions of any sort. It is emphatically our Xew Possession, for the 
Hawaiian Islands have practically been ours for a long time, our commerce being 
dominant and our influence paramount. They are indebted for civilization to our 
merchants and missionaries, and European vices to our whalers and other traders 
and explorers. Porto Eico has long been the example of the colonial system of 
Spain best bearing scrutiny of impartial inquiry, and the critical assaults of the 
hostile. The island is too small and too well provided with roads to be the chosen 
field of such insurgents as the Spanish government produces; and in the absence of 
the warfare of ambuscade, massacre and desolation by fire, fashionable in the 
struggles of the children of Spain for freedom from the deadly embrace of their 
mother country, its history has been comparatively tame, and the people in a 
modest way exceptionally prosperous. 

The second article of our treaty of peace with Spain opens with the line 
"Spain cedes to the United States the Island of Porto Eico." It is plainly, 
simply and satisfactorily ours by conquest, and the people have no bands of firebugs, 
or shadowy armies of haunting phantoms in the shrubbery, attempting or threaten- 
ing the assassination of American soldiers in the name of liberty and savage pride 
of self-government. There is no army of professed patriots who have been organ- 
izing famine with firebrand and chopping-knife, to appear in the field when the 
war is over with a pay-roll and refuse to disband until with imported money 
they are paid for their sufferings in securing home rule by burning houses and 
cane and tobacco. The Porto Eicans have no leader of rebellion, who has been 
exiled with a check-book and bank account, and returned after th& Spanish power 

has been broken bv Americans, to assume authoritv over the liberators and shoot 

38 



TIIK CO^'QUEST f)F POKTO EICO. 41 

at them from jungles, because tliey landed to emancipate an. enslaved people, with- 
out formally asking the slaves if the sacred soil could be used to overpower their 
merciless masters. The wolves and wildcats of Philippine politics have not ap- 
peared in the underbrush of Porto Rico. 

Contrary to the teaching and the examples of the Cubans and the Filipinos, 
the Porto Eicans do not ask to be paid for heroism in destroying the industries 
of their native soil, before permitting themselves to make a beginning of restor- 
ing sugar and tobacco culture. In Cuba the Spaniards had no objection to sugar- 
making and to growing and curing the tobacco of the golden leaves. But grind- 
ing cane was an abomination in the sight of Gomez of Hayti, who sought freedom 
by the San Domingo method. The fashion is hardly fixed in regard to the culti- 
vation of the land in Cuba as the excitement of a people, just freed from Spanish 
supervision, has not subsided. The Cuban armies wijl no doubt tolerate occa- 
sional manifestations of manhood at work on the rich soil and under the radiant 
sky of their island. In the Philippines they have a leadership that forbids toil 
in the fields while there are trenches to dig from which to fire upon the victors 
over the Spaniards. The next time we put forth our hands, and find in them 
an archipelago, we will know from experience that the waj' to establish peace is to 
allow no room for doubt that we are going to stay and be the ruling race. It makes 
the people of Spanish association and mixed blood uneasy to confront uncertainty. 
However, we have kept the faith both in Cuba and Luzon in a military occupation 
with a view to redeem the promise of the establishment of a "stable government;" 
and we are in honor bound to keep the peace if we have to fight for it, and to 
provide for the liberty of the people on the lands we have won by the sword, if 
we have to dust insurgents out of the way and apply the stern medicine of 
shrapnel. 

The Cuban republic under a New York Junta is one fake, and the Luzon 
government of Aguinaldo is another. The latter is no doubt held by the ignorant 
people, he calls "his," and we have a school of statesmen who regard them as 
his belongings and the only people, and that he is the hero who conquered the 
Spaniards at Manila to be dispossessed of the fruits of his valor and conduct 
by the Americans intruding themselves upon a free people and preventing their 
development in the science and arts of self-government, where one man rules six 
millions, using a dainty, dandy cane as a scepter and keeping out of danger, 
because his life is too valualjle to risk where bullets fly. 

As -Porto Rico was the most eastern of the West Indian possessions of Spain 
and of fair sanitary reputation and a thousand miles nearer the Spanish peninsula 



42 THE CONQUEST OF PORTO EICO. 

tlian Havana, there was much speculation as to the propriety of the United States 
army and na\7 striking there first; and as our superiority in sea power developed 
from day to day, the consideration of a campaign in the eastern island became more 
serious, but there was encountered the fine fury of the Cuban Libre crusaders, 
who tliought war could not exist unless Havana was bombarded. The marble 
walls of Congress rang with cries of contempt for persons afraid of a rainy 
season; and as for yellow fever — no one need fear it who had been acclimated 
in our camps and heard the furious eloquence of our champions of freedom. The 
]\Iajor-Gencral commanding had regard for tropical rains and fevers and wanted 
to spend the summer in working up a great army with which Havana was to 
be taken after the rains had passed and the fever was over, but the public impa- 
tience and the presidential judgment were not in agreement. 

It was resolved to strike a blow' as soon as the sea was cleared of Spaniards 
and the regular army ready to lead the attack. The first serious thought was 
to land in Cuba on the northwestern coast, about as far west of Havana as the 
English landing in 1762 was east of that capital. The proposed Mariel landing 
meant that we should attack the Spaniards where they were strongest and the 
deadly climate was at its worst; that we should be pitted against tropical rains, 
the yellow fever, scarcity of water, and committed to force roads easily defended, 
while Blanco got together an army of eighty thousand efEectives and more than 
a hundred and fifty field pieces. It was resolved to shift the scene of the first 
aggressive activity to the southern coast of Cuba, but not so far east as Santiago. 
It fell to General Shaffer to be designated for this command. The Major-General 
commanding the army was fertile in plans of campaign, and had perfected one 
for each of three of the cardinal points of Cuba — North-west, South-west and 
Xorth-east, and Porto Eico. The necessity of Admiral Cervera to obtain coal 
and his fear of American fleets took him to Santiago, where, if he had realized 
how widespread were the squadrons active in the blockade, and that the South 
coast was tolerably clear he would have made for Cicnfuegos and been there 
in touch with Havana by rail. 

Commodore Schley did not understand that Cervera could be so short of 
coal and so shy of combat that he had to go to th^ prison of the Santiago harbor 
to give himself a lease of life, and, as he was approved at the time by Sampson, 
the Commodore discredited for a few days the story of the Spanish fleet at 
Santiago, believing it was unreasonable and was disposed to act as if Cervera had 
coal and was equipped for disturbing our calcidafions of movement. Cervera 



THE CONQUEST OF PORTO KICO. 43 

at Santiago carried tlie American army and fleet there, and the first strol^c turned 
out the decisive blow. 

At Washington there were two campaigns in view — the one on tlie south coast 
shifted to Santiago by Cervera, called No. 1, and the one for Porto Eico, known 
as No. 2. The Major-General commanding of course anticipated taking charge 
of our most considerable army and there was a natural idea that the objective 
point of the principal force would be Havana. He was told by friends when 
he did not go promptly to the front with the southern shore movement that he 
was making the mistake of his life, and urged to go. 

This warning happened to begin at the house of the Secretary of War, and 
was given by the Adjutant-General. General Miles thought it would not be 
according to the correct estimate of the dignity of his commanding position to 
leave direct contact with the mighty army gathered, and go with a detachment 
not exceeding seven per cent of the whole; and he made the error of not heading 
the Santiago expedition in person. 

On the 26th of April General Miles wrote the Secretary of War that it was 
of "the highest importance" that the troops called for by the President might 
be disciplined for field service with the least delay, and he said they "ought to be 
in camp approximately sixty days in their States, as so many of the States have 
made no provision for their State militia, and not one is fully equipped for field 
service. * * * This preliminary work should be done before the troops leave 
their States. While this is being done, the general officers and staff officers can 
be appointed and properly instructed, large camps of instruction can be judiciously 
selected, ground rented, and stores collected.. At the end of sixty days the regi- 
ments, batteries and troops can be brigaded and formed into divisions and corps, 
and proper commanding generals assigned, and this great force may be properly 
equipped, molded and organized into an effective army, with the least possible 
delay." 

Thus it appears the earliest purpose at military headquarters was to fight it 
out on this line, taking all summer. On the ISth of April General Miles wrote: 

"It is extremely hazardous, and I think it would be injudicious to put an 
army on that island at this season of the year, as it would undoubtedly be deci- 
mated by the deadly disease, to say nothing of having to cope with some 80,000 
troops, the remnant of 21-1,000, that have become acclimated, and that are equipped 
with 183 guns." He added: "There is still time, if this is favorably considered, to 
put a small force of regular troops, numbering approximately 1*,000 men, in 



44 THii CONQUEST OF PORTO KICO. 

healthful camps until ^nch time as they tan be used on tlie Inland of Cuba with 
safety." 

Dut it was not within the contemplatron of ihv Major-General commanding 
to put himself at the head of this "small force." 

The following letter shows that General Jliles desired to be in the first expedi- 
tion off for the fateful adventure: 

Headquarters of the Army, 

Tampa, Fla., June 5, 1898. 
The Secretary of War, Washington, D. C: 

This expedition has been delayed through no fault of any one connected 
with it. It contains the principal part of the army, which, for intelligence and 
efficiency, is not excelled by any body of troops on earth. It contains fourteen 
of the best conditioned regiments of volunteers, the last of which arrived this 
morning. Yet these have never been under fire. Between 30 and 40 per cent are 
undrilled, and in one regiment over 300 men had never fired a gun. I request 
ample protection at all times for this command by the navy. [This was changed 
by inserting the words "at sea.""] This enterprise is so important that I desire 
to go with this army corps, or to immediately organize another and go with it 
to join this and capture position No. 2. Now that the military is about to be 
used, I believe that it should be continued with every energy, making the most 
judicious disposition of it to accomplish the desired result. MILES, 

Major-General Commandincr Army. 



Washington, D. C, June 0, 1898, 2:3.5 P. M. 
Major-General Miles, Tampa, Fla.: 

The President wants to know the earliest moment you can have an expedi- 
tionary force ready to go to Porto Pico large enougli to take and hold island 
without the force imder General Shafter. 

R. A. ALGER, Secretary of War. 



Tampa. Fla.. Juno 6, 1898. 

(Received 8:27 P. M.) 
Secretary of War, Washington, D. C: 

Believe such a force can be ready as soon as sufficient transports could be 
gathered for (undutiful)* 23,000 volunteers. Will inform you definitely as soon 
as reports can be received as to exact condition of regiments and batteries. This 
corps has been organized and cquijijcd in part for that purpose, and I believe 



♦Cipher word "undutiful," interpreted 23.000. should have been 30,000. See telegram 
June 11 from General Miles, 



« 
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A I'DRTO Rli'O RELLE. '(-..pyricliteil by J. M. Jordan.! 



THE CONQUEST OF POETO lUCO. 47 

it sufficient. I oU'er the following merely as a suggestion: To leave Xo. 1 safely 
guarded. Tliis corps, with the combined assistance of the Xavj-, to take Xo. 3 
first before it can be re-enforced. In order to make sure of this, have it followed 
by (unbearable)j 22,0C0 additional volunteers as quickly as transportation can 
be secured, utilizing what transports are now engaged, any prize steamers now 
at Key West, and any Atlantic auxiliary cruisers that can be spared by the Xavy. 
Such a force ought to sail in ten days. Leaving sufficient force to hold Xo. 2, the 
capture of Xo. 1 can then be easily accomplished and the troops then landed at 
any point that might be thought advisable. MILES, 

Major-General Commanding Army. 



War Department, June 6, 1898. 
Major-General Miles, Tampa, Fla.: 

The President says no. He urges the utmost haste in departure of Xo. 1, 
and also of Xo. 2, as indicated by you, but that Xo. 1 must be taken first. 

K. A. ALGER, Secretary of War. 



Adjutant-General's Office, 
Washington, June 7, 1898, 10 P. M. 
Major-General Miles. Tampa, Fla.: 

As you report that an expedition to Porto Kico (with 23,000 troops) can be 
ready in ten days, you are directed to assemble such troops at once for the purpose. 
The transports will be ready for you in ten days or sooner, if you can be ready. 
Acknowledge receipt. 

By order of the Secretary of War: 

H. C. CORBIX, Adjutant-General. 



It was understood at the war office that General Miles cared especially to 
handle the Porto Rican expedition. June 26th the Secretary of War wrote the 
Major-General commanding: 

"By direction of the President an expedition will be organized with the least 
possible delay, under the immediate command of ilajor-General Brooke, L'nited 
States Army, consisting of three divisions taken from the troops best equipped in 
the First and Third Army Corps and two divisions from the Fourth Army Corps, 
for movement and operation against the enemy in Cuba and Porto Rico. The 
command under Major-General Shatter, or such part thereof as can be spared from 
the work now in hand, will join the foregoing expedition, and you will com- 
mand the forces thus united in person." 



tCipher word "unbearable." interpreted 22.000, should have been 10.000. 
No. 1 is Santiago; No. 2. Porto Rico. 



48 THE CONQUEST OF I'OHTO lUlU. 

Tliis answers a great many questions ami clears the scene of foggy imputa- 
tions. Whethertit was the fault of General Miles that he was not at the head in 
person of the "small force" that was before Santiago, it was not his fortune to 
have that distinction. He was conducting a carefully planned and highly suc- 
cessful campaign in Porto Eico when the war closed and the energies of military 
commanders were directed to other forms of combativeness. 

.May 3d- Secretary Long telegraphed Admiral Sampson: 

Washington, ilay 3, 1898. 
Sampson, Key West, Fla.: 

No large army movement can take place for a fortnight, and no small one 
will until after we know the whereabouts of the four Spanish armored cruisers 
and destroyers. If their objective is Porto l\ico they should arrive about May 8, 
and immediately action against them and San Juan is then authorized, in such 
case the Flying Squadron would re-enforce you. LOXG. 



Washington, May 5, 1S98. 
Sampson (care T'nited States Consul), 
Cape Haitien, Haiti: 
Do not risk so crippling your vessels against fortifications as to" prevent from 
soon afterward successfully fighting the Spanish lluet, composed of Pelayo, 
Carlos v., \'izcaya, Oquendo, Colon, Teresa, and four torpedo-boat destroyers if 
they should a])pear on this side. LONG. 

May Gth this "confidential" dispatch was sent Sampson by Long: 

"Sir: Referring to the Department's confidential instruction of the 6th of 
April, and (others) you are informed that the Department has not intended to 
restrict your operations in the West Indies, exce])t in regard to the blockade of 
certain portions of Ctd:)a and in the exposure of your vessels to the fire of heavy 
guns mounted on shore which are not protecting or assisting formidable Spanish 
shijis. 

•"riic Dcjiartment is perfectly willing that you should expose your shijis to 
the heaviest guns of land l:>atteries if, in your opinion, there are Sjianish vessels of 
s'utlicient military importance protected by these guns to make an attack advi.sable, 
your chief aim being for the present the destruction of the enemy's principal 
vessels. 

"The Department writes this letter because it has been intimated by civilians, 
and it is believed by officers of rank serving under you, that you are not per- 
mitted to take the ofl'ensive even against small land batteries, and that you must 
wait to be fired upon before making an aggressive movement against any port, 
no matter how jioorly fortified." 

Admiral Samnson found there were no Spanish warships at San Juan, Porto 



thp: conquest of porto luco. 49 

Eico, aud April 16tli "determiDed to attack the batteries defending the port, in 
order to develop their positions and strength, and then, without waiting to reduce 
the city or subject it to a regular bombardment — which would require due notice — 
turn to the westward. 

"Our progress had been so much slower than I had reason to anticipate, from 
Key West to Porto Rico, owing to the frequent breakdowns of the two monitors, 
which made it necessary to tow them both the whole distance, and also to the 
disabled condition of the Indiana, that eight days had been consumed instead 
of five, as I had estimated. 

"I commenced the attack as soon as it was ^ood daylight. This lasted about 
three hours, when the signal was made to discontinue the firing. At Cape Haytien 
I received word from the Department that the Spanish vessels had been sighted 
off Curacao on the 14th instant and directed me to return with all dispatch to 
Key West." 

Captain Evans of the Iowa reported injuries to his ship, one by a. shot from 
the enemy and one by the shock of his own firing: 

"One shell, (i-inch or 8-inch, exploded in tlie skid frames, port side, abreast 
the after 8-inch turret. The fragments of this shell wounded three men, passed 
through the sailing launch, and made several holes in the stanchions, ventilators, 
galley funnels, and other deck fittings. One of the fragments probably struck the 
()-pounder cage mount on the starboard after side of the forward bridge, break- 
ing and jamming the training securing bolt and also jamming the gun pivot. 

''Other fragments of this shell did considerable injury to the joiner work 
on the bridge. 

'"Another shell or shrapnel e3f[iloded above the boat skids on the starboard 
side and inflicted trifling wounds upon the escape pipes, smokestacks, etc. 

'"The injuries above summarized are indicated in detail on an accompanying 
sheet, appended and marked A. 

"In firing the last round from the after 1'2-inch turret, at about 15° on the 
starboard quarter, the following injury to the hull was inflicted by the blast of 
the discharge: 

"The deck planking on the starboard quarter is badly pitted by the uncon- 
sumed powder prisms. Some of these pits are two inches deep, an evidence that 
the gttn does not properly constime its powder charge. 

"The hatch plate, newly fitted at the New York Navy- Yard in December 
last, was torn from its bolts and thrown back toward the gun, clear of the hatch. 
Two of the holding-down bolts were broken and several of the lugs on the plate 
cracked. The plate is very slightly twisted. 

"The deck beam.s, frames 82 and 83, abreast the cabin skylight hatch, star- 
board side, have been sprung and are out of line in the transverse sense. 



50 THE CONQUEST OF PORTO RICO. 

"The bulkhead about the eabiu doors betwueu frames 7d and 83, starl)oard 
side, is torn from its hangers on the beams, the rivets being sheared. 

'"The deck over the after torpedo room is not sufficiently strong, and the 
blast of the 12-inch gun, «hen trained forward, made sutiicient play to the deck 
to break the hangers hanging the training-trolley circle of the starboard torpedo 
tube. This is the second occasion npon which this accident has occurred. 

"The blast of the forward 12-inch gun smashed the ^Jartition forming the 
captain's sleeping room in the pilot house."' 

Admiral Sampson did not furnish the aid (ieneral Miles wanted in his Porto 
Rico movement, and Miles requested "positive orders be given to the navy to 
cover the landing of ten thousand troops on the Island of Porto Rico without 
delay." Here the President interposed with this conclusive dispatch: 

Executive ^lansion, Washington, July 20, 1898. 
Hon. John D. Long, Secretary of the Xavy. 

Sir: I hand you a dispatch just received from General Miles. It is evident 
to me from this dispatch that Admiral Sampson is not proposing to furnish such 
assistance as I have heretofore directed. He shoidd send enough ships, and strong 
enough, as will enable General ililes to land his troops in safety at Point Fajardo, 
Cape San Juan, and to remain so long as their assistance is needed. 

General Wilson has already sailed from Charleston, with orders to proceed 
to Point Fajardo. If yotir convoy is delayed he will reach Point Fajardo without 
any protection whatever, wdiich must not be permitted. Wilson cannot be 
reached by wire. He has no guns on his ships. The Secretary of War says 
that General Wilson is due to arrive at Point Fajardo in three or four days. 
Prompt action should be taken to give General Wilson protection on his arrival 
there. It seems to me a cruiser or battle ship, or both, should be detailed for 
this duty. 

Please see that the necessary orders are issued at once. 

WILLIAM M'KIXLEY. 

12 M., Wednesday, July 20, 1898. 

This is in many ways a dispatch to be commended. The snarl was straightened 
out swiftly — Sampson and Miles satisfied. 

The conquest of Porto Rico progressed smoothly with little loss, though the 
Spaniards were in considerable force. The Peace Protocol came just in time 
to prevent a severe struggle, and our troops were charmed to see the welcome 
the people gave the Flag of the United States and delighted with the ojiening 
of numerous schools in the towns and many evidences of cultivation and good 
will. Porto Rico is one of the gems of the sea. 



CHAPTER II. 
PORTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

Size of Island in Comparison and in Figures — Comparison of the Island with 
Cuba — Porto Ricans a Better Class of People than Are the Cubans — Island 
Has Not Suffered from Spanish Rule as Much as Has Cuba — One of the 
Fairest Gems of the Ocean — American Flag Raised Over the Island Amid 
tlie Cheering of the People — Revenue and Expenses of the Island Govern- 
ment — Island Rich in Costly Native Woods — Home of the Tropical Fruits — 
Scarcity of Wild Animal Life, but Pestiferous Insects are Plentiful — Rich 
in ilinerals — E.xtensive Commerce with the Great Nations — Coffee, Sugar 
and Tobacco Leading Products and Exports — Healthiest Climate in tlie 
Antilles — In Density of Population Ranks First in the West Indies — Ex- 
tracts from United States Military Notes — Soil and Climate — Wet and Dry 
Seasons — P)reezes, Winds and Hurricanes — Principal Mountain, River and 
Harbor — Cities and Towns — Highways and Railroads — Interesting Features 
of San Juan, the Capital and Principal City. 

Porto Rico is not quite as large as Connecticut, but larger than the States of Del- 
aware and Rhode Island. The climate of the island is delightful, and its soil exceed- 
ingly rich. In natural resources it is of surpassing opulence. The length of the 
island is about one hundred miles, and its breadth thirty-five, the general figure of 
it being like the head of a sperm whale. The range of mountains is from east to 
west, and nearly central. The prevalent winds are from the northwest, and the 
rainfall is much heavier on the northern shores and mountain slopes than on the 
southern. The height of the ridge is on the average close to 1,500 feet, one bold 
peak, the Anvil, being 3, GOO feet high. The rainy north and the droughty south, 
with the lift of the land from the low shores to the central slopes and rugged eleva- 
tions, under the tropical sun, with the influence of the great oceans east, south and 
north, and the multitude of western and southern islands, give unusual and charm- 
ing variety in temperature. Porto Rico is, by the American people, even more than 
the Spaniards, associated with Cuba. But it is less than a tenth of Cuban propor- 
tions. Porto Rico has 3,600 square miles to Cuba's 42,000, but a much greater 
proportion of Porto Rico than of Cuba is cultivated. Less than one-sixteenth of 
the area of Cuba has been improved, and while her population is but 1,600,000, ac- 
cording to the latest census, and is not so much now, Porto Rico, with less than a 
tenth of the land of Cuba, has half the number of inhabitants. Largely Porto 
Rico is peopled liy a better class than the mass of the Cubans. Cuba is wretchedly 
provided with n^ads, one of the reasons why the Spaniards were incapable of juitting 

51 



52 rORTO EICO, OUR AXTTLLKAX POSSESSION. 

down insurrections. If they had expended a fair proportion of the revenues de- 
rived from the flourishing plantations and the monopolies of Spanish favoritisnis 
tliat built up Barcelona and enriched Captain-Generals,and in less degree other public 
servants, tiie rebellions would have been put down. The Spanish armies in Cuba, 
however, were rather managed for official sjieculation and peculation, were more 
l)ronienaders than in military enterprise and the ?tern business of war. With 
Weyler for an opponent, Gomez, as a guerilla, could have dragged on a series of 
skirmishes indefinitely. The story of the alleged war in Cuba between the Span- 
iards and the Cubans was on both sides falsified, and the American people deceived. 
I'orto Kico does not seem to have appealed so strongly to the cupidity of the Span- 
iards as Cuba did, and to have been governed with less brutality. The consequence 
is there has not been a serious insurrection in the smaller island for seventy years, 
and it falls into our possession without the impoverishment and demoralization of 
the devastation of war — one of the fairest gems of the ocean. 

It was October 18th that the American Hag was raised over San Juan. The fol- 
lowing dispatch is the official record: 

"San Juan, Porto Rico, Oct. 18.— Secretary of War, Washington, D. C: Flags 
have been raised on public buildings and forts in this city and saluted with national 
salutes. The occupation of the island is now complete. 

"BROOKE, Chairman." 

On the morning of the 18th, the 11th regular infantry with two batteries of the 
5th artillery landed. The latter proceeded to the forts, while the infantry lined 
up on the docks. It was a holiday for San Juan and there were many people in the 
streets. Rear-Admiral Schley and General (iordon, accompanied by their staffs, 
proceeded to tlie palace in carriages. The 11th infantry regiment and band with 
Troop H, of the 6th United States cavalry then marched through the streets and 
formed in the square opposite the palace. 

At 11:40 a. m., General Brooke, Admiral Schley and General Gordon, the United 
States evacuation commissioners, came out of the palace with many naval officers 
and formed on the right side of the square. The streets behind the soldiers were 
thronged with townspeople, who stood waiting in dead silence. 

At last the city clock struck 12, and the crowds, almost breathless and with eyes 
fixed upon the flagpole, watched for developments. At the sound of the first gun 
from Fort Morro, Major Dean and Lieutenant Castle, of General Brooke's staflF, 
hoisted the stars and stripes, wliile the band played "The Star Spangled Banner." 
All heads were bared and the crowds cheered. Fort Morro, Fort San Cristobal and 



PORTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAN POSSESSION. 53 

the United States revenue cutter Manning, lying in the harbor, fired twenty-one 
guns each. 

Senor Munoz Rivera, who was president of the recent autonomist council of sec- 
retaries, and other officials of the late insular government were present at the pro- 
ceedings. Many American flags were displayed. 

Acknowledgment has been made of the better condition of Porto Rico than ot 
Cuba, but the trail of the serpent of colonial Spanish government appears, Mr. 
Alfred Solomon writes in the Independent: 

"The internal administration of the island disposes of a budget of about $3,300,- 
000, and is a woeful example of corrupt officialism. Of this sum only about $650,000 
is expended in the island, the remainder being applied to payment of interest on 
public debt, salaries of Spanish officials, army, navy, and other extra-insular ex- 
penditures. But the whole of the revenue is collected in the island." 

An article of great value by Eugene Deland, appeared in the Chatauquan of 
September, on the characteristics of Porto Rico, and we present an extract, showing 
its admirable distinction of accurate information well set forth: 

"The mountain slopes are covered with valuable timbers, cabinet and dye-woods, 
including mahogan}-, walnut, lignum vitae, ebony, and logwood, and various medic- 
inal plants. Here, too, is the favorite zone of the coffee tree, which thrives best one 
thousand feet above sea level. The valleys and plains produce rich harvests of sugar- 
cane and tobacco. The amount of sugar yielded by a given area is said to be greater 
than in any other West Indian island. Rice, of the mountain variety and grown 
without flooding, flourishes almost any place and is a staple food of the laboring 
classes. In addition to these products cotton and maize are commonly cultivated, 
and yams, plantains, oranges, bananas, cocoanuts, pineapples, and almost every other 
tropical fruit are grown in abundance. Among indigenous plants are several noted 
for their beautiful blossoms. Among these are the coccoloba, which grows mainly 
along the coasts and is distinguished by its large, yard-long purple spikes, and a 
talauma, with magnificent, ororous, white flowers. 

"Of wild animal life Porto Rico has little. No poisonous serpents are found, 
but pestiferous insects, such as tarantulas, centipedes, scorpions, ticks, fleas, and 
mosquitos, supply this deficiency in a measure. All sorts of domestic animals are 
raised, and the excellent pasture-lands support large herds of cattle for export and 
home consumption, and ponies, whose superiority is recognized throughout the West 
Indies. 

"The mineral wealth of the island is undeveloped, but traces of gold, copper, iron. 



54 PORTO RICO, Ol'll ANTILLKAX POSSESSION. 

lead, and coal arc found. Salt is procured in considerable quantities from the lakes. 
•'Porto Rico carries on an extensive commerce, chiefly with Spain, the United 
States, Cuba, German)', Great Britain, and France. In 1895 the volume of its trade 
was one-half greater than that of the larger British colony — Jamaica. The United 
States ranks second in amount of trade with the island. During the four years from 
1893-9G Spain's trade with the colony averaged $11,402,888 annually, and the United 
States, $5,028,544. The total value of Porto Rican exports for 1896 was $18,341,- 
430, and of imports, $18,282,090, making a total of $3G,G24,120, which was an 
excess over any previous year. The exports consist almost entirely of agricultural 
products. In 1895 coffee comprised about sixty per cent, and sugar about twenty- 
eight per cent, of their value; leaf tobacco, molasses, and honey came next. Maize, 
hides, fruits, nuts, and distilled spirits are also sent out in considerable quantities. 
Over one-half of the coffee exported goes to Spain and Cuba, as does most of the to- 
bacco, which is said to be used in making the finest Havana cigars; the sugar and 
molasses are, for the most part, sent to the United States. Among imports, manu- 
factured articles do not greatly exceed agricultural. Rice, fish, meat and lard, 
flour, and manufactured tobacco are the principal ones. Customs duties furnish 
about two-tliirds of the Porto Rican revenue, which lias for several years yielded 
greater returns to Spain than that of Cuba. 

"The climate of Porto Rico is considered the healthiest in the Antilles. The 
heat is considerably less than at Santiago de Cuba, a degree and a half farther nortli. 
The thermometer seldom goes above 90 degrees. Pure water is readily obtained in 
most of the island. Yellow fever seldom occurs, and never away from the coast. The 
rainy season begins the first of June and ends the last of December, but the heavy 
downpours do not come on until about August 1st. 

•"In density of population also this island ranks first among the West Indies, 
having half as many inhabitants as Cuba, more than eleven times as large. Of its 
807,000 people, 326,000 are colored and many of the others of mixed blood. They 
differ little from other Spanish-Americans, being fond of ease, courteous, and hos- 
pitable, and, as in other Spanish countries, the common people are illiterate, public 
education having been grievously neglected. The natives are the agriculturists of 
the countrv. and are a majority in the interior, while the Spaniards, who control 
business and commerce, are found mainly in the towns and cities. 

"The numerous good harbors have naturally dotted the seaboard with" cities 
and towns of greater or less commercial importance. San Juan. Ponce, ^layaguez, 
Aguadilla, Areeibo and Fajardo all carr}- on extensive trade. Intercourse between 



PORTO RICO, OVn AXTILLKAX POSSESSIOX. 55 

coiijt towns is rciidily had by water, but is to be faeilitated by a railroad around 
the island, of which 137 miles have been built and ITO miles more projected. The 
public higliways of the island are in better condition than one might expect. Ac- 
cording to a recent report of United States Consul Stewart, of San Juan, there are 
about one hundred and fifty miles of good road. The best of this is the military high- 
way connecting Ponce on the southern coast with San Juan on the northern. This is 
a macadamized road, so excellently built and so well kept up that a recent traveler 
in the island says a bicycle corps could go over it without dismounting. Whether 
it is solid enough to stand the transportation of artillery and lieavy army trains we 
shall soon know. Of telegraph lines Porto Kico has four hundred and seventy 
miles, and two cables connect it witli the outside world, one running from Ponce and 
the other from San Juan." 

Mr. Alfred Solomon, already Cjuotcd as an instructive contributor to the Inde- 
pendent, writes: 

'"Tiio jiopulation of Porto Rico, some 800,000, is essentially agricultural. A 
varied climate, sultry in the lowlands, refreshing and invigorating in the mountain 
ranges, makes possible the cultivation of almost every variety of known crop — sugar, 
tobacco, coffee, annatto, maze, cotton and ginger are extensively grown; but there are 
still thousands of acres of virgin lands awaiting the capitalist. Tropical fruits 
flourish in abundance, and the sugar-pine is well known in our marl;et, where it 
brings a higher price than any other pine imported. Hardwood and fancy cabinet 
wood trees fill the forests, and await the woodman's ax. Among these are some 
specimens of unexampled beauty, notably a tree, the wood of which, when jjolished, 
resembles veined marble, and another, rivaling in beauty the feathers in a peacock's 
tail. Precious metals abound, although systematic effort has never been directed 
to the locating of paying veins. Rivers and rivulets are plenty, and water-power 
is abundant; and the regime should see tlie installation of power plants and electric 
lighting all over the island, within a short time after occu|.iation. On the lowlands, 
large tracts of pasturage under guinea grass and malojilla feed thousands of sleek 
cattle, but, as an article of food, mutton is almost unknown. The native pony, 
small, wiry and untirable, has a world-wide reputation, and for long journeys is 
unequaled, possessing a gait, as they say in the island, like an arm-chair. 

"Perhaps a third of the population of the island is of African descent; but, 
strangely enough, the colored people are only to be found on the coast, and are 
the fishermen, boatmen and laborers of the seaports. The cultivation of the crops 
is entirely in the hands of the jibaro, or peasant, who is seldom of direct Spanish 



56 rORTO RICO, OFR AXTILLKAX POSSESSIOX. 

descent, wliile the financiering and exportation is conducted almost entirely by 
l)eninsulares, or Spanish-born colonists, who monopolize every branch of commerce 
to the exclusion of the colonian-born subject. 

'•Coffee planting is largely engaged in, returning from ten to fifteen per cent, on 
capital. Improved transportat' m facilities, abolition of export dues and the con- 
solidation of small estates would, doubtless, help toward better results. This crop is 
marketed in Europe — London, Havre and Barcelona — where better prices are ob- 
tainable than in Xew York. With the exception of a few plantations in strong 
hands, most of this property could be purchased at a fair valuation, and would prove 
to be a very profitable investment. 

"Cocoa grows wild on the lowdands, but has not been cultivated to any apprecia- 
ble extent. Small consignments sent to Europe have been pronounced superior to the 
Caracas bean. The tree takes a longer period than coffee to come to maturity and 
bear fruit; but once in bearing the current expenses are less and the yield far 
greater. The same remarks apply to the cultivation of rubber, which, although a 
most profitable staple with an ever-increasing market, has received no attention 
whatever. 

"Corn is raised in quantities insufficient for home consumption. Of this cereal 
three crops can be obtained in two years; sometimes two a year. The demand is 
constant, and the price always remunerative. 

"In Porto Rico, as in most other West Indian islands, sugar is king. In the 
treatment of this product the lack of capital has been sadly felt. Planters possess 
only the most primitive machinery, and in the extraction of the juice from the cane 
the proportion of saccharine matter has been exceedingly small. Great outlay is 
necessary for the installation of a complete modern crushing and centrifugal plant." 
A flattering picture of our new possessions is drawn in ilcClure's Magazine, by 
Mr. George B. Waldron. 

"Here, then, are Cuba and Porto Rico in the Atlantic, and the Hawaiian and 
Philippine groups in the Pacific, whose destiny has become intertwined with our own. 
Their combined area is 168,000 square miles, equaling New England, Xew York, 
Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Their population is about 10,000,000, or perhaps 
one-half of that of these nine home States. The Philippines, with three-quarters 
of the entire population, and Porto Rico, with 800,000 people, alone approach our 
own Eastern States in density-. Cuba, prior to tlie war, was about a? well populated 
as Virginia, and the Hawaiian group is as well peopled as Kansas. What, then, can 
these islands do for us? 



ro]:70 "RICO. ot"r axtilleax possesstox. 57 

"Americans use more .-ugar in proportion to population than any other nation of 
the world. The total consiiniptiou last ^car was not less than 2,500,000 tons. This 
is enough to make a pyramid that would overtop the tallest pyramid of Egyptian 
fame. Of this total, 2,200,000 tons came from foreign countries, the Spanish pos- 
sessions and Hawaii sending about twenty-five per cent. Five years earlier, when 
our imports were less by iuilf a million tons, these islands supplied double this 
quantity, or nearly two-thirds of the nation's entire sugar import. But that was 
before Cuba had been devastated by war and when she was exporting 1,100,000 tons 
of sugar to other countries. Restore Cuba to her former fertility, and the total sugiir 
crop of these islands will reach 1,. 500,000 tons, or two-thirds our present foreign 
demand." 

There is much more in Mr. Waldron's summary of the vast addition that has 
been made to our resources by the occupation and possession of the islands that 
have recently been gathered under our wings by the force of our arms. It is enough 
to know that with the tropical islands we have gained, we have in our hands the 
potentialities, the luxuries, the boundless resources including, as we may, and must, 
Alaska, of all the zones of the great globe that we inhabit in such ample measure. 

The following notes were compiled for the information of the armv. and embodv 
all reliable information available. 

The notes were intended to supplement the military map of Porto Rico. The 
following books and works were consulted and matter from them freely used in 
the prei^aration of the notes: Guia Geografico Militar de Espana y Provincias 
Fltramarinas, 1879; Espana, sus Monumentos y Artes, su Naturaleza e Historia, 
1887; Compendio de Geografia Militar de Espana y Portugal, 1882; Anuario deComer- 
cio de Espana, 1896; Anuario Militar de Espana, 1898; Eeclus, Nouvelle Geographic 
Uuiverselle, 1891; Advance Sheets American Consular Reports, 1898; An Account 
of the Present State of the Island of Porto Rico, 1834; The Statesman's Year Book, 
1898. 

Situation. — Porto Rico is situated in the Torrid Zone, in the easternmost part of 
the Antilles, between latitude 17 deg. 54 min. and 18 deg. 30 min. 40 sec. X. and 
longitude 61 deg. 54 min. 26 sec. and 63 deg. 32 min. 32 sec. W. of Madrid. It is 
bounded on the north by the Atlantic, on the east and south by the sea of the 
Antilles, and on the west by the ilona Channel. 

Size. — The island of Porto Rico, the fourth in size of the Antilles, lias, ac- 
cording to a recent report of the British consul (1897), an extent of aliout 3,668 



58 PORTO RKU OTlt AXTILLKAX P0SSES8I0X. 

square miles — 35 miles broad and 95 miles long. It is of an oblong form, exiouding 
from east to west. 

Population. — Porto Eico is the first among the Antilles in density of population 
and in prosperity. The Statesman's Year Book, 1S98, gives the population (1887) 
at 813,937, of which over 300,000 are negroes, this being one of the few countries 
of tropical America where the number of whites exceeds that of other races. The 
whites and colored, however, are all striving in the same movement of civilization, 
and are gradually becoming more alike in ideas and manners. Among the white 
population the number of males exceeds tlie number of females, which is the con- 
trary of all European countries. This is partly e.\-plained by the fact that the 
immigrants are mostly males. On an average the births exceed the deaths by double. 
The eastern portion of the island is less populous than the western. 

Soil. — The ground is very fertile, being suitable for the cultivation of cane, coffee, 
rice, and other products raised in Cuba, which island Porto Eico resembles in rich- 
ness and fertility. 

CUmate. — The climate is hot and moist, the medium temperature reaching 104 
degs. F. Constant rains and winds from the east cool the heavy atmosphere of 
the low regions. On the heights of the Central Cordillera the temperature is healthy 
and agreeable. 

Iron rusts and becomes consumed, so that nothing can be constructed of this 
metal. Even bronze artillery has to be covered with a strong varnish to protect it 
from the damp winds. 

Although one would suppose that all the large islands in the Tropics enjoyed 
the same climate, yet from the greater mortality observed in Jamaica, St. Domingo, 
and Cuba, as compared with Porto Eico, one is inclined to believe that this latter 
island is nuR-li more congenial than any of the former to the health of Europeans. 
The heat, liie rains, and the seasons are, with very trifling variations, the same in all. 
But the number of mountains and running streams, which are everywhere in view 
in Porto Eico, and the general cLdtivation of the land, may powerfully contribute 
to purify the atmosphere and render it salubrious to man. The onfy difference of 
temperature to be observed throughout the i.-land is due to altitude, a change which 
is common to every country under the influence of the Tropics. 

In tlu" nuiuntains the inhabitants enjoy the coolness of spring, while the valleys 
would be uninhabitable were it not for the daily breeze which blows generally from 
the northeast and ea.«t. For example, in Ponce the noonday sun is felt in all it? rigor, 
wliile at the village of Adjuntas, 4 leagues distant in tlie interior of the mountains. 



PORTO i;i((). OTR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 



59 



the traveler feels invigorated by the reireshiiig breezes of a temperate clime. At one 
l)iaee the thermometer is as high as 90 (leg., while in another it is sometimes under 
()0 deg. Although the seasons are not so distinctly marked in this climate as they 
are in Europe (the trees being always green), yet there is a distinction to be made 
between them. The division into wet and dry seasons (winter and summer) does not 
give a proper idea of the seasons in this island; for on the north coast it sometimes 
rains almost the whole year, while sometimes for twelve or fourteen months not a 
drop of rain falls on the south coast. However, in the mountains at the south there 
are daily showers. Last year, for example, in the months of November, December, 
and January the north winds blew with violence, accompanied by heavy showers of 
rain, while this year (1832) in the same months, it has scarcely blown a whole day 
from that point of the compass, nor has it rained for a whole month. Therefore, 
the climate of the north and south coasts of this island, although under the same 
tropical influence, are essentially different. 

As in all tropical countries, the year is divided into two seasons — the dry and 
the rainy. In general, the rainy season commences in August and ends the last 
of December, southerly and westerly winds prevailing during tliis period. The rain- 
fall is excessive, often inundating fields and forming extensive lagoons. The exhala- 
tions from these lagoons give rise to a number of diseases, but, nevertheless, Porto 
Rico is one of the healthiest islands of the archipelago. 

In the month of May the rains commence, not with the fury of a deluge, as 
in the months of August and September, but heavier tiian any rain experienced in 
Europe. Peals of thunder reverberating tlirough the mountains give a warning of 
their approach, and the sun breaking tlirough the clouds promotes the prolific vegeta- 
tion of the fields jy-ith its vivifying heat. The heat at this season is equal to the sum- 
mer of Europe, and the nights are cool and pleasant; but the dews are heavy and 
pernicious to health. The following meteorological observations, carefully made by 
Don Jose Ma. Vertez, a Captain of the Spanish navy, will exhibit the average range 
of temperature: 

Degrees of heat observed in the capital of Porto Rico, taking a medium of five 
years. 

Degrees of Heat Observed in the Capital op Porto Rico, taking a Medium of 

Pi\'E Years. 



Hours of the Day. 




1^ 


y 
S 


P. 


^ 
s 




1^ 


bib 

< 


a, 


O 


'A 


i 


Seven in the morning 

>'oon 

Five in the evening 


73 

m 

78 


121 

81 

74 


74 
83 
78 


78 

m 

80 


78 

8.T 

81 


83 
8fi 
84 


85 
90 

87 


86 
93 
90 


8()J 

88 

83 


77 
85 
83 


75 

84 
80 


75 
80 
79 



en PORTO EICO, OIK AXTILLKAX I'OSSKSSIGX. 

The weather, after a fifteen or twenty days" rain, clears up and the sun, whose 
heat has been hitiicrto moderated by partial clouds and showers of rain, seems, as 
it were, set in a cloudless sky. The cattle in the pastures look for the shade of 
the trees, and a perfect calm pervades the whole face of nature from sunrise till be- 
tween 10 and 11 o'clock in the morning, when the sea breeze sets in. The leaves 
of the trees seem as if afraid to move, and the sea. without a wave or ruffle on its 
vast expanse, appears like an immense mirror. Man partakes in the general lan- 
gour as well as the vegetable and brute creation. 

The nights, although warm, are delightfully clear and serene at this season. 
Objects may be clearly distinguished at the distance of several hundred yards, so 
that one may even shoot by moonlight. The months of June and July offer very 
little variation in the weather or temperature. In August a suffocating heat reigns 
throughout the day, and at night it is useless to seek for coolness; a faint zephyr is 
succeeded by a calm of several hours. The atmosphere is heavy and oppressive, 
and the body, weakened by perspiration, becomes languid; the appetite fails, and 
the mosquitos, buzzing about the ears by day and night, perplex and annoy by their 
stings, while the fevers of the tropics attack Europeans with sudden and irresistible 
violence. This is the' most sickly season for the Kuropean. The thermometer fre- 
quently exceeds 90 deg. The clouds exhibit a menacing appearance, portending 
the approach of the heavy autumnal rains, which pour down like a deluge. About 
the middle of September it appears as if all the vapors of the ocean had accumu- 
lated in one point of the heavens. The rain comes down like an immense quantity 
of water poured through a sieve; it excludes from the view every surrounding 
object, and in half an hour the whole surface of the earth becomes an immense 
sheet of water. The rivers are swollen and oTcrflow their banks, the low lands are 
completely inundated, and the smallest brooks become deep and rapid torrents. 

In the month of October the weather becomes sensibly cooler than during the 
preceding months, and in Xovember the north and northeast winds generally set 
in, diffusing an agreeable coolness through the surrounding atmosphere. The body 
becomes braced and active, and the convalescent feels its genial influence. The 
north wind is accompanied (with few exceptions) by heavy showers of rain on 
the north coast; and the sea rolls on that coast with tempestuous violence, while 
the south coast remains perfectly calm. 

When till' fury of the north wind abates, it is succeeded by fine weather and a 
dear sky. Xotliing can exceed the climate of Porto Pico at this season: one can only 
compare it to the month of May in the delightful Province of Andalusia, where the 



PORTO EICO, OITE AXTILLEAN POSSESSION. 61 

cold of winter and the burning heat of summer are tempered by the cool freshness 
of spring. This is considered to be the healtliiest season of the year, when a Euro- 
pean may visit the tropics without fear. 

The small islands, destitute of wood and high mountains, which have a powerful 
effect in attracting the clouds, suffer much from drought. It sometimes happens tliat 
in Curacao, St. Bartholomews, and other islands there are whole years withcuit a 
drop of rain, and after exhausting their cisterns the inhabitants are compelled to- 
import water from the rivers of other islands. 

"The land breeze"' is an advantage which the large islands derive from the in- 
equality of their surface; for as soon as the sea breeze dies away, the hot air of the 
valleys being rarified, ascends toward the tops of the mountains, and is there con- 
densed by cold, which makes it specifically heavier than it was before; it then de- 
scends back to the valleys on both sides of the ridge. Hence a night wind (blowing 
on all sides from the land toward the shore) is felt in all the mountainous countries 
under the torrid zone. On the north shore the wind comes from the south, and on 
the south shore from the north. 

Storms. — The hurricanes which visit the island, and which obey the general laws 
of tropical cyclones, are one of the worst scourges of the country. For hours before 
the appearance of this terrible phenomenon the sea appears calm; the waves come 
from a long distance very gently until near the shore, when they suddenly rise 
as if impelled by a superior force, dashing against the land with extraordinary 
violence and fearful noise. Together with this sign, the air is noticed to be disturbed, 
the sun red, and the stars obscured by vapor which seems to magnify them. A 
strong odor is perceived in the sea, which is sulphureous in the waters of rivers, and 
there are sudden changes in the wind. These omens, together with the signs of un- 
easiness manifested by various animals, foretell the proximity of a hurricane. 

This is a sort of whirlwind, accompanied by rain, thunder and light- 
ning, sometimes by earthquake shocks, and always by the most terri- 
ble and devastating circumstances that can possibly combine to ruin a 
country in a few hours. _ A clear, serene day is followed by the darkest night; the 
delightful view offered by woods and prairies is diverted into the deary waste of a 
cruel winter; the tallest and most robust cedar trees are uprooted, broken off bodily, 
and hurled into a heap; roofs, balconies, and windows of houses are carried through 
the air like dry leaves, and in all directions are seen houses and estates laid waste and 
thrown into confusion. 

The fierce roar of the water and of the trees being destroyed by the winds,. 



62 POKTO RICO, OUR ANTII.LF.AX POSSESSIOX. 

the cries and moans of persons, the bellowing of cattle and neighing of horses, 
whicli are being carried from place to place by the whirlwinds, the torrents of water 
inundating the fields, and a deluge of fire being let loose in flashes and streaks of 
lightning, seem to announce the last convulsions of the universe and the deatli 
agonies of nature itself. 

Sometimes these hurricanes are felt only on the north coast, at others on the 
south coast, although generally their influence extends throughout the island. 

In 182.5 a hurricane destroyed the towns of Patillas, ilaunabo, Yabucoa, Hu- 
inacao, Gurabo, and Caguas, causing much damage in other towns in the east, north, 
and center of the island. The island was also visited by a terrible hurricane in 1772. 

Earthquakes. — Earthquakes are somewhat frequent, but not violent or of groat 
consequence. The natives foretell them by noticing clouds settle near the ground 
for some time in the open places among the mountains. The water of the springs 
emits a sulphurous odor or leaves a strange taste in the mouth; birds gather in 
large flocks and fly about uttering shriller cries than usual; cattle bellow and 
horses neigh, etc. A few hours beforehand the air becomes calm and dimmed 
by vapors which arise from the ground, and a few moments before there is a slight 
breeze, followed at intervals of two or three minutes by a deep rumbling noise, 
accompanied by a sudden gust of wind, which are the forerunners of the vibration, 
the latter following immediately. These shocks are sometimes violent and are usually 
repeated, but owing to the special construction of the houses, they cause no damage. 

Tides. — For seven hours the tide runs rajndly in a northwest direction, return- 
ing in the opposite direction with equal rapidity for five hours. 

Orography. — The general relief of Porto Eico is much inferior in altitude to that 
of the rest of the Great Antilles, and even some of the Lesser Antilles have mountain 
summits which rival it. 

A great chain of mountains divides the islands into two parts, northern and 
southern, which are called by the natives Banda del Xorte and Banda del Sur. 
This chain sends out long ramifications toward the coasts, the interstices of which 
form beautiful and fertile valleys, composed in the high parts of white and red 
earths, on the spurs of black and weaker earths, and near the coasts of sand. 

To the northwest and following a direction almost parallel with the northern 
coast, the Sierra of Lares extends from Aguadilla to the town of Lares, where it 
divides into two branches, otie going north nearly to the coast, near Arecibo harbor, 
and the other . extending to the spurs of the Sierra Grande de Bancs; this 




■t" 



'-■i.. 



PORTO ETCO, OUR ANTILLEAN POSSFSSfOX. C5 

latter starting from Point Guaniquilla, crosses the island in its entire 
lengtli, its last third forming the Sierra of Cayey. 

The whole island may be said to form a continuous network of sierras, hills, and 
heights. Of these the Sierra del Loquillo is distingui.-hed for its great altitude 
(the highest peak being Yunque, in the northeast corner of the island and visible 
from the sea, a distance of 120 kilometers), as is also Laivonito Mountain, near the 
south coast. 

The following are the four highest mountains, with their heights above the 
sea level: Yunqne, in Luquillo, 1,290 yards: Guilarte, in Adjuntas, 1,180 yards; 
La Somanta, in Aybonito, 1,077 yards: Las Tetas de C'erro Gordo, in San German, 
860 yards. All are easily ascended on foot or horseback, and there are coffee plan- 
tations near all of them. 

Approximate Height of Towns Above the Sea Level. — Aybonito, with its accli- 
matization station, 970 yards; Adjuntas, an almost exclusively Spanish town, 810 
yards; Cayey, with a very agreeable climate, 750 yards; Lares, with a very agree- 
able climate, 540 yards; Utuado, with a very agreeable climate, 480 yards: ilnricao, 
an exclusively Spanish town, 480 yards. To ascend to all these towns there arc 
very good wagon roads. There are no fortifications of any kind in them, but they 
are surrounded, on all sides by mountains. 

Hydrography. — Few countries of the extent of Porto Rico are watered by so 
many streams. Seventeen rivers, taking their rise in the mountains, cross the val- 
leys of the north coast and empty into the sea. Some of these are navigable 2 or .3 
leagues from their mouths for schooners and small coasting vessels. Those of 
Manati, Loisa, Trabajo, and Arecibo are very deep and broad, and it is difficult to 
imagine how such large bodies of water can be collected in so short a Course. Owing 
to the heavy surf which continually breaks on the north coast, these rivers have bars 
across their embouchures which do not allow large vessels to enter. The rivers of 
Bayamo and Rio Piedras flow into the harbor of the capital, and are also navisjable 
for boats. At high water small brigs may enter the river of Arecibo with perfect 
safety and discharge their cargoes, notwithstanding the bar which crosses its mouth. 

The rivers of the north coast have a decided advantage over those of the south 
coast, where the climate is drier and the rains less frequent. Xevertheless. the 
south, west, and east coasts are well supplied with water; and, although in some 
seasons it does not rain for ten, and sometimes twelve months on the south coast, 
ihe rivers are never entirely dried up. 



66 POKTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

From the Cabeza de San Juan, which is the northeast extremity of the island, 
to the cape of ilala Paseua, which lies to the southeast, 9 rivers fall into the sea. 

From Cape Mala Pascua to Point Aguila, which forms the southwest angle of 
the island, It! rivers discharge their waters on the south coast. 

On the west coast 3 rivers, 5 rivulets, and several fresh-water lakes eommuuicate 
with the sea. In the small extent of 330 leagues of area there are 40 rivers, besides a 
countless number of rivulets and branches of navigable water. 

The rivers of the north coast are stocked with delicious fish, some of them large 
enough to weigh two quintals. 

From the river of Arecibo to that of Manati, a distance of 5 leagues, a fresh-water 
lagoon, perfectly navigable for small vessels through the whole of its extent, runs 
parallel to the sea at about a mile from the shore. 

In the fertile valley of Anasco, on the western coast, there is a canal formed 
by nature, deep and navigable. Xone of the rivers are of real military importance; 
for, though considering the shortness of their course, they attain quite a volume, 
still it IS not sufficient for good-sized vessels. 

The rivers emptying on the north coast are Loisa, Aguas Prietas, Arecibo, Baya- 
mon, Camuy, Cedros, Grande, Guajataca de la Tuna, Lesayas, Loquillo, ilanati. 
Eio Piedras, Sabana, San Martin, Sibuco, Toa, and Vega. 

Those emptying on the east coast are Candelero, Dagua, Fajardo, Gua3-anes, 
Majogua, and ilaonabo. 

On the south coast: Aquamanil, Caballon, Cana, Coamo, Descalabrado, Guanica, 
Guaj'ama, Guayanilla, Jaeagua, Manglar. Penuela, Ponce and Yigia. 

On the west coast: Aguada, Boqueron, Cajas, Culebrina, Chico, Guanajibo, 
Mayagiiez, and Rincon. 

The limits of the Loisa river are: On the east, the sierra of Luquillo (situated 
near the northeast corner of the island); on the south, the sierra of Cayey, and 
on the west, ramifications of the latter. It rises in the northern slopes of the sierra 
of Cayey, and. running in a northwest direction for the first half of its course and 
turning to northeast in the second half, it arrives at Loisa, a port on the northern 
coast, where it discharges its waters into the Atlantic. During the first part of its 
course it is known by the name of Cayagua. 

The Sabana river has, to the east and south, the western and southern limits 
of the preceding river, and on the west the Sierra Grande, or De Barros, which is 
situated in the center of the general divide, or watershed. It rises in the sierra of 
Cayey, and, with the name of Pinones river, it flows northwest, passing through Ai- 



POKTO RICO, OUE ANTILLEAN TOSSESSION. 67 

bonito, Toa Alta, Toa Baja, and Dorado, where it discharges into tlie Atlantic to 
the west of the preceding river. 

The Manati river is bounded on the east and soiitli by the Sierra (irande and 
on the west by the Siales ridge. It rises in the Sierra Grande, and parallel with 
the preceding river, it flows thruugh Siales and ilanati, to the north of which latter 
town it empties into the Atlantic. 

The Arecibo river is bounded on the east by the Siales mountain ridge, on the 
south by the western extremity of the Sierra Grande, and on the west by the Lares 
ridge. It rises in the general divide, near Adjuntas, and flows north through the 
town of Arecibo to the Atlantic, shortly before emptying into which it receives the 
Tanama river from the left, which proceeds from the Lares Mountains. 

The Culebrina river is bounded on the south and east by the Lares mountain 
ridge, and on the north by small hills of little interest. From the Lares Mountains 
it flows from east to west and empties on the west coast north of San Francisco de la 
Aguada, in the center of the bay formed between Point Penas Blaneas and Point 
San Francisco. 

The Anasco river is formed by the Lares mountain ridge. It rises in the eastern 
extremity of the mountains called Tetas de Cerro Gordo, flowing first northwest 
and then west, through the town of its name and thence to the sea. 

The Guanajivo river has to its north the ramifications of the Lares ridge, to 
the east the Tetas de Cerro Gordo Mountains, and on the south Torre Hill. In 
the interior of its basin is the mountain called Cerro Montuoso, which separates 
its waters from those of tis aifluent from the right, the Rosaria river. It rises in the 
general divide, flowing from east to west to Xuestra Senora de Montserrat, where 
it receives the affluent mentioned, the two together then emptying south of Port 
Mayaguez. 

The Coamo river is bounded on the west and north by the Sierra Grande, 
and on the west by the Coamo ridge. It rises in the former of these sierras, and 
flowing from north to south it empties east of Coamo Point, after having watered the 
town of its name. 

The Salinas river is bounded on the west by the Coamo ridge, on the north by 
the general divide, and on the east by the Cayey ridge. It rises in the southern 
slopes of the Sierra Grande and flowing from north to south through Salinas de 
Coamo, empties into the sea. 

Coasts, Harbors, Bays, and Coves. — Tlie northern coast extends in an almost 
straisfht line from east to west, and is liigh and rugged. The only luirbors it has 



G8 POKTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSKSSIOX. 

are the following: San Juan de Porto Eico, surrounded by mangrove swamps and 
protected by the Cabras and the Cabritas islands and some very dangerous banks; 
the anchoring ground of Arecibo, somewhat unprotected; and the coves of Cangrejos 
and Condado. During the months of November, December, and January, when 
the wind blows with violence from the cast and northeast, the anchorage is danger- 
ous in all the bays and harbors of this coast, except in the port of San Juan. Ves- 
sels are often obliged to put to sea on the menacing aspect of the heavens at this sea- 
son, to avoid being driven on shore by the heavy squalls and the rolling waves of a 
boisterous sea, which propel ihcui to destruction. During the remaining months 
the ports on this coast are safe and commodious, unless when visited by a hurricane, 
against whose fury no port can offer a shelter, nor any vessel be secure. The ex- 
cellent port of San Juan is perfectly sheltered from the effects of the north wind. 
The hill, upon which the town of that name and the fortifications which defend it 
arc built, protects the vessels anchored in the harbor. The entrance of this port 
is narrow, and requires a pilot; for the canal which leads to the anchorage, although 
deep enough for vessels of any dimensions, is very narrow, which exposes them to 
run aground. This port is several miles in extent, and has the advantage of having 
deep canals to the east, among a wood of mangrove trees, where vessels are perfectly 
secure during the hurricane months. Vessels of 250 tons can at present unload 
and take iu th^ir cargoes at the wharf. Harbor improvements have been recently 
made here. 

On the northwest and west are the coves of Aguadilla, the town of this name 
being some 4 kiloineters inland. There are the small coves of Rincon, Anasco, and 
ilayaguez, the latter being protected and of sufficient depth to anchor vessels of mod- 
erate draft; the liarbor of Real de Cabo Rojo, nearly round, and entered by a narrow 
channel; and the cove of Boqueron. The spacious bay of Aguadilla is formed by 
Cape Borrigua and Cape San Francisco. When the north-northwest and southwest 
winds prevail it is not a safe anchorage for ships. A heavy surf rolling on the shore 
obliges vessels to seek safety by putting to sea on the appearance of a north wind. 
Mayaguez is also an open roadstead formed by two projecting capes. It has good 
anchorage for vessels of a large size and is well sheltered from the north winds. 
The port of Cabo Rojo has also good anchorage. It is situated S. one-fourth N. 
of the point of Guanajico, at a distance of 5^ miles. Its shape is nearly circular, 
and it extends from east to west 3 to 4 miles. At the entrance it has 3 fathoms of 
water, and l(i feet in tlie middle iif the harbor. The entrance is a narrow canal. 

The south coast abounds in bavs and harbors, but is covered with mamiroves 



PORTO TJIf'O, OUR ANTILLEAX TOSSESSIOK 69 

and vecis, die only harJjor where vessels of regular draft can enter being Guanica 
and I'once. The former of these is the westernmost harbor on the southern 
coast, being at the same time the best, though the least visited, owing to the swamps 
and low tracts difReult to cross leading from it to the interior. The nearest towns, 
San German, Sabana Grande, and Yauco, carry on a small trade through this port. 

In the port of Guanica, vessels drawing 21 feet of water may enter with perfect 
safety. Its entrance is about 1(J0 yards wide, and it forms a spacious basin, com- 
pletely landlocked. The vessels may anchor close to the shore. It has, in the whole 
extent, from G| to 3 fathoms, the latter depth being formed in the exterior of the 
port. The entrance is commanded by two small hills on either side, which if mounted 
with a few pieces of artillery would defy a scjuadron to force it. This port would be 
of immense advantage in time of war. The national vessels and coasters would thus 
have a secure retreat from an enemy's cruiser on the south coast. There are no 
wharves, but vessels could disembark troops by running alongside the land and run- 
ning out a plank. C'oamo Cove and Aguirre and Guayama are also harbors. The 
port of Jovos, near Guayama, is a haven of considerable importance. It is a large 
and healthy place, and the most Spanish of any city on the island after San Juan. 
There are good roads to the capital. Vessels of the largest kind may anchor and 
ride in safety from the winds, and the whole British navy would find room in its 
spacious bosom. It has 4 fathoms of water in the shallowest part of the entrance. 
However, it is difficult to enter this port from June to November, as the sea breaks 
with violence at the entrance, on account of the southerly w^inds which reign at that 
season. It has every convenience of situation and locality for forming docks for the 
repair of shipping. The large bay of Anasco, on the south coast, affords anchorage 
to vessels of all sizes. It is also safe from the north winds. Although on the eastern 
coast there are many places for vessels to anchor, yet none of them are exempt 
from danger during the north winds except Fajardo, where a safe anchorage is to 
be found to leeward of two little islands close to the bay, where vessels are completely 
sheltered. 

The island of Vieques has also several commodious ports and harbors, where 
vessels of the largest size may ride at anchor. 

On the east coast is Cape Cabeza de San Juan, Points Lima, Candeleros, and Nar- 
anjo, and Cape Mala Paseua; on the south coast. Point Viento, Tigueras, Corchones, 
Arenas, Fama or Maria, Cucharas, Guayanilla, Guanica, and Morillos de Cabo Rojo; 
on the west coast, points San Francisco, Cadena, Guanijito, Guaniquilla, and Palo 
Seco. 



70 



rORTO RICO. OUR ANTIT.T.KAX I'OSSKSSIOX. 



Highways. — There are few roads or way; of communication which are worthy of 
mention, with the exception of the broad pike which starts from the capital and 
runs along the coast, passing through the following towns: Aguadilla, Bayamon, 
Cabo Rojo, Humacao, Juana Diaz, Mayaguez, Ponce, and San German. It has no 
bridges; is good in dry weather, but in the rainy season is impassible for wagons and 
even at times for horsemen. 

For interior communication there are only a few local roads or paths. They 
are usually 2 yards in width, made by the various owners, and can not be well trav- 
eled in rainy weather. They are more properly horse and mule trails, and oblige 
peojjle to go in single file. In late years much has been attempted to improve 
the highways connecting the principal cities, and more has been accomplished 
than in Spanish colonies. There is a good made road connecting Ponce on the 
southern coast with San Juan the capital. Other good roads also extend for a short 
distance along the north coast and along the south coast. The road from Guayama 
is also said to be a passably good one. 

There are in the island about 150 miles of excellent road, and this is all that re- 
ceives any attention, transportation being effected elsewhere on horse back. Iru the 
construction of a road level foundation is sought, and on this is put a heavy layer 
of crushed rock and brick, which, after having been well packed and rounded, is cov- 
ered with a layer of earth. This is well packed also, and upon the whole is spread a 
layer of oround limestone, which is pressed and rolled until it forms almost a glossy 
surface. This makes an excellent road here where the climate is such that it does 
not affect it, and when there is no heavy traffic, but these conditions being changed, 
the road, it is thought, would not stand so well. 

From Palo Seco, situated about a mile and a half from the capital, on the op- 
posite side of the bay, a carriage road, i)erfectly level, has been constructed fur n 
distance ot 22 leagues to the town of Aguadilla on the west coast, passing through 
the towns of Vegabaja, Manati, Arecibo, Flatillo, Camuy, and Isabella. This road 
has been carried for several leagues over swampy lands, which are intersected by 
deep drains to carry off the water. 

The road from Aguadilla to Mayaguez is in some parts very good, in other parts 
only fair. From Aguadilla to Aguada, a distance of a league, the road is excellent 
and level. From thence to Mayaguez, through the village of Rincon and the town of 
.\nasco, the road is generally good, but on the seashore it is sometimes interrupted 
by shelving rocks. Across the valley of Anasco the road is carried through a boggy 
tract, with bridges over several deep creeks of fresh water. From thence to the 



rORTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 71 

large comiiiercial town of Majaguez the road is uneven and requires some improve- 
ment. But the roads from Mayaguez and Ponce to their resjiective ports on the 
seashore can not be surpassed by any in Europe. They are made in a most sub- 
stantial manner, and their convex form is well adapted to preserve them from the 
destruction caused by the heavy rains of the climate. These roads have been made 
over tracts of swampy ground to the seacoast, but with little and timely repair 
Ihey will last forever. 

A road, which may be called a carriage road, has been made from Ponce to the 
village of Adjuntas, situated 5 leagues in the interior of the mountains. The road 
iilong the coast, from Ponce to Guayama, is fairly good; from thence to Patillas 
there is an excellent carriage road for a distance of 3 leagues; from the latter place 
to the coast is a high road well constructed. Erom Patillas to Fajardo, on the eastern 
coast, passing through the towns of Maimavo, Yubacao, Humacao, and Naguabo, the 
roads are not calculated for wheel vehicles, in consequence of being obliged to ascend 
and descend several steep hills. That which crosses the mountain of Mala Pasctia, 
dividing the north and east coasts, is a good -and solid road, upon which a person 
on horseback may travel with great ease and safety. The road crossing the valley of 
Yubacao, which consists of a soft and humid soil, requires more attention than that 
crossing the mountain of Mala Pascua, which has a fine, sandy soil. 

From Fajardo to the capital, through the towns of Luquillo, Loisa, and Rio 
Piedras, the road is tolerably good for persons on horseback as far as Rio Pie- 
dras, and from thence to the city of San Juan, a distance of 2 leagues, is an ex- 
cellent carriage road, made by the order and under the inspection of the Captain- 
General, part of it through a mangrove swamp. Over the river Loisa is a handsome 
wooden bridge, and on the road near Rio Piedras is a handsome stone one over a 
deep rivulet. 

One of the best roads in the island extends from the town of Papino, situated in 
the mountains, to the town of Aguadilla on the coast, distant oj leagues, through the 
village of La Moca; in the tJistance of 3 leagues from the latter place, it is crossed 
by 10 deep mountain rivulets, formerly impassable, but over which solid bridges 
bavfc now been built, with side railings. Li the mountainous district within the cir- 
cumference of a few leagues no less than -iT bridges have been built to facilitate 
the communication between one place and the other. 

The following are the roads of G meters width, 4} in center of pounded stone. 
They have iron bridges and are in good shape for travel all the year. 

(1) San Juan to the Shore near Ponce.— Irom San Juaii to Ponce the central 



72 PORTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

road is exactly 134 kilometers. Distances along the line are: Rio Piedras, 11; 
Caguas, 25; to Cayei, 24; Aybonito, 20; C'oamo, 18; Juana Diaz, 20; to Ponce, 
13; and to the shore, 3. Exact. 

(2) San Juan to Bayamon. — By ferry fifteen minutes to Catano, and from there 
ty road to Bayamon 10 kilometers. This jjasses alongside the railway. 

(3) Rio Piedras to Mameyes, 36 kilometers; from Rio Piedras to Carolina, 12; 
to Rio Grande, 19; to Mameyes, 5. 

(4) Cayei to Arroyo, 35 kilometers; from Cayei to Guaj-ama, 25; to Arroyo, 8; 
from San Juan to Arroyo, via Cayei, is 95 kilometers. 

(5 Ponce to Adjuutas, 32 kilometers. 

(6) San German to Anasco, 33 kilometers; from San German to Mayaguez, 21 
kilometers; Mayaguez to Anasco, 12; Mayaguez to Mormigueros, 11; Mayaguez to 
Cabo Rojo, 18; Mayaguez to Las Marias, 23; Mayaguez to Maricao, 35; Hor- 
migueras to San German, 14. Near Mayaguez the roads are best. There are gotvd 
roads in all directions. 

(7) Aguadilla to San Sebastian, 18. 

(8) ArecilJo to Utuado, 33. 

Highways of first class in the island, 335 kilometers. 

Along these roads are, at a distance of 8 to 10 kilometers, a fort, stone, and 
brick barracks, or large buildings, where the Spanish troojis stop and rest when 
on the march. 

Railroads. — In 1878 a report was presented to the minister of the colonies on a 
study made by the engineer and head of public works of the inland in view of con- 
structing a railroad which should start from the capital and, passing through all 
the chief towns and through the whole island, return to the point of departure. 

Of this railroad the following parts have been completed: San Juan, along 
the coast through Rio Piedras, Bayamon, Dorado, Arecibo, and Ilatillo, to Camuy; 
Aguadilla, through Aguado, Rincon, Anasco, and Mayaguez, to Homigueros. A 
branch of this railroad from Anasco, through San Sebastian, to Lares. Ponce, 
through Guayanilla, to Yauco. This latter railroad follows the southern coast line 
and is followed by a wagon road throughout its course. In one place the railroad and 
road run within a few hundred yards of the coast hue. According to the Statesman'. 
Year Book for 1898 there are in operation 137 miles of railroad, besides over ^70 
miles under construction. 

All the railroads are single track, and the gauge is 1 meter iO centimeters, or 3 
feet 11^ inches. 



PORTO lUCO, OUR ANTILLEAN POSSESSION: T.? 

The following are the raihvaj'S of 1-meter gauge: 

(1) San Juan to Kio Piedras, 11 kilometers. 

(2) Catano to Bayamon, 10 kilometers. 

(3) Anasco to San Sebastian and Lares, 35 kilometers. 
Total of three lines, 56 kilometers. 

The lines are all in good shape, have plenty of engines and cars; speed, 20 kil- 
ometers per hour; use coal for fuel imported from the United States; supply usually 
large, may be small now; hard coal; fine stations; plenty of water, and everything 
in shape for business. 

Telegraphs. — The capital communicates with the principal towns of the coast and 
interior by means of a well-connected telegraph system. There are in all some -170 
miles of telegraph. 

Telephones. — The British Consular Report says that the telephone system of San 
Juan, Ponce, and Maj-aguez have recently been contracted for by local syndicates. 
In Ponce a United States company obtained the contract for the material. There 
are 100 stations already connected, and it is e.xpected that 200 more will be in opera- 
tion shortly. 

Administration. — From an administrative standpoint, Porto Rico is not con- 
sidered as a colony, but as a province of Spain, assimilated to the remaining prov- 
inces. The Governor-General, representing the monarchy, is at the same time Cap- 
tain-General of the armed forces. In each chief town resides a military commander, 
and each town has its alcalde, or mayor, appointed by the central power. The prov- 
incial deputation is elected by popular suffrage under the same conditions as in 
Spain. The regular peace garrison is composed of about 3,000 men, and the annual 
budget amounts to some 20,000,000 pesos. 

Education. — In 1887 only one-seventh of the population could read and write, 
but of late years progress in public instruction has been rapid. 

Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. — In 1878 there arrived in the harbors of 
the island 1,591 vessels of different nationalities and 1,534 departed. The value of 
products imported was 14,787,551 pesos, and that of articles exported was 13,070,- 
020 pesos. The following are the relative percentages of values: 

Flags. Relation. 

Per Cent. 

Spanish 49.91 

American 13.47 

English 21.43 

Various Nations 15.19 

Total . . : 100.00 



74 POKTO ]{!(■(), on; AXTILLEAX POSSESSIOX. 

Navigation is very active, but tlic part tlie inhabitants take in the commercial 
fleet is small. The Porto Eicans are not seagoing people. The eastern part of the 
island offers less advantage to commerce than the western, being to the windward 
and afTording less shelter to vessels. 

Porto liico has more than seventy towns and cities, of which Ponce is the most 
important. Ponce has 22,000 inhabitants, witli a jurisdiction numbering 4T,0IHI. It 
is situated on the south coast of the island, on- a plain, about 2 miles from the sea- 
board. It is the chief town of the judicial district of its name, and is 70 miles from 
San Juan. It is regularly built, the central part almost exclusively of brick houses, 
and the suburbs of wood. It is the residence of the military commander, and the seat 
of an official chamber of commerce. There is an appellate criminal court, besides other 
courts; 2 churches, one Protestant, said to be the only one in the Spanish West 
Indies; 2 hospitals besides the mihtary hospital, a home of refuge for old and poor, 
2 cemeteries, 3 asylums, several casinos, 3 theaters, a market, a municipal public 
library, 3 first-class hotels, 3 barracks, a park, gas works, a perfectly equipped fire de- 
partment, a bank, thermal and natural baths, etc. Commercially, Ponce is the second 
city of importance on the island. A fine road leads to the port (Playa), where all 
the import and export trade is transacted. Playa has about 5,000 inhabitants, and 
here are situated the custom house, the office of the captain of the port, and all the 
consular offices. The port is spacious and will hold vessels of 25 feet draft. The 
climate, on account of the sea breezes during the day and land breezes at night, is not 
op]iressive, but very hot and dry; and, as water for all purposes, including the fire 
department, is amply supplied by an aqueduct 4,442 yards long, it is said that the 
city of Ponce is perhaps the healthiest place in (he whole island. There is a stage 
coach to San Juan. JIayaguez. Giiayama, etc. There is a railroad to Yauco, a post 
office, and a telegraph station. 

It is believed that Ponce was founded in 1600; it was given the title of villa in 
1848, and in 1877 that of city. Of its 34 streets the best are Mayor, Salud, Villa. 
Vives, JIarina, and Comercio. The best squares are Principal and Las Dclicias, which 
are separated by the church of Xuestra Scnora dc Guadalupe. The church, as old as 
the town itself, began to be reconstructed in 1838 and was finished in 1847. It is 
86 yards long by 43 broad, and has two steeples, rich altars, and fine ornaments. 

The theater is called the I'earl, and it deserves this name, for it is the finest 
on the island. It has a sculptured porch, on the Byzantine order, with very graceful 
columns. It is mostly built of iron and marble and cost over 70,000 pesos. It is 52 
yards decj) by 29 wide. The inside is beauiiful. the boxes and seats roomy and 



POETO EICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 75 

nicely decorated. It may, by a mec-hanical arrangement, be converted into a danc- 
ing liall. 

About 1| miles northeast of the town are the (juintana thermal baths, in a build- 
ing surrounded by j^retty gardens. They are visited by sufferers from rheumatism 
and various other diseases. 

San Juan is a perfect specimen of a walled town, with portcullis, moat, gates, 
and battlements. The wall surrounding this town is defended by several batteries. 
Facing the harbor are those of San Fernando, Santa Catalina, and Santa Toribio. 
Looking toward the land side is Fort Abanico, and toward the ocean the batteries of 
San Antonio, San Jose, and Santa Teresa, and Fort Princesa. The land part has 
two ditches, or cuts, which are easy to inundate. The fort and bridge of San Antonio 
that of San Geronimo, and the Escambron battery situated on a tongue of land 
which enters the sea. Built over two hundred and fifty years ago, the city is still 
in good condition and repair. The walls are picturesque, and represent a stupendous 
work and cost in themselves. Inside the walls the city is laid off in regular squares, 
six parallel streets running in the direction of the length of the inland and seven at 
right angles. 

The peninsula on which San Juan is situated is connected with the mainland by 
three bridges. The oldest, that of San Antonio, carries the highway across the 
shallow San Antonio Channel. It is a stone-arched bridge about 3o0 yards long 
including the approaches. By the side of this bridge is one for the railroad and 
one for the tramway which follows the main military highway to Rio Piedras. 

Among the buildings the following are notable: The palace of the Captain- 
General, the palace of the intendencia, the town hall, military hospital, jail, Ballaja 
barracks, theater, custom house, cathedral. Episcopal palace, and seminary. There 
is no university or provincial institute of second grade instruction, and only one 
college, which is under the direction of Jesuit priests. The houses are eloselv and 
compactly built of brick, usually of two stories, stuccoed on the outside and pain:ed 
in a variety of colors. The upper floors are occupied by the more respectable people, 
while the ground floors, almost without exception, are given up to the negroes and 
the poorer class, who crowd one upon another in the most appalling manner. 

The population within the walls is estimated at 20,000 and most of it lives nn 
the ground floor. In one small room, with a flimsy partition, a whole family will 
reside. The ground floor of the whole town reeks with filth, and conditions are 
most unsanitary. In a tropical country, where disease readily prevails, the conse- 
quences of such herding may be easily inferred. There is no running water in the 



76 POETO EICO, OT'E ANTILLEAX POSSESSIOX. 

town. The entire population depend upon rain water, caught upon the flat roofs 
of the buildings and conducted to the cistern, which occupies the greater part of 
the inner court-yard that is an essential part of Spanish houses the world over, 
but that here, on account of the crowded conditions, is ver}- small. There is no 
sewerage, except for surface water and sinks, while vaults are in ever)' house and 
occupy whatever remaining space there may be in the patios not taken up by the 
cisterns. The risk of contaminating the water is very great, and in dry seasons 
the supply is entirely exhausted. Epidemics are frequent, and the town is alive 
with vermin, fleas, cockroaches, mosquitoes, and dogs. 

The streets are wider than in the older part of Havana, and will admit two car- 
riages abreast. The sidewalks are narrow, and in places will accommodate but 
one person. The pavements are of a composition manufactured in England from 
slag, pleasant and even, and durable when no heavy strain is brought to bear upon 
them, but easily broken, and unfit for heavy trafiic. The streets are swept once a 
day by hand, and, strange to say, are kept very clean. 

From its topographical situation the town should be healthy, but it is not. The 
soil under the city is clay mixed with lime, so hard as to be almost like rock. It is 
consequently impervious to water and furnishes a good natural drainage. 

The trade wind blows strong and fresh, and through the harbor runs a stream 
of sea water at a speed of not less than three miles an hour. With these conditions 
no contagious diseases, if properly taken care of, could exist; without them the place 
would be a veritable plague spot. 

Besides the town within the walls there are small portions just outside, called 
the Marina and Puerta de Tierra, containing two or three thousand inhabitants 
each. There are also two suburbs, one, San Turce, approached by the only road 
leading out of the city, and the other, Catano, across the bay, reached by ferry. 
The Marina and the two suburbs are situated on sandy points or spits, and the 
latter are surrounded by mangrove swamps. 

The entire population of the city and suburbs, according to the census of 1887, 
was 27,000. It is now (1896) estimated at 30,000. One-half of the population con- 
sists of negroes and mixed races. 

There is but little manufacturing, and it is of small importance. The Standard 
Oil Company has a small refinery across the bay, in which crude petroleum brought 
from the United States is refined. Matches are made, some brooms, a little soap, 
and a cheap class of trunks. There are also ice, gas, and electric light works. 

The Island of Porto Eico in 1509 was invaded by Spaniards from Haiti, 
and has since that time l>cen a Spanish colony. 



poirro i!i('(), on; antij.lj:ax tosskssion. :: 

A range of lofty moiuitains called Luquillo, covered with wood and inter- 
sected by numerous deep ravines, runs through the center of the island, begin- 
ning near the northeast point and terminating south of Arecibo in a hill called 
the Silla de Caballo. The highest peak of this chain (3, 714 feet high) is visible 
in clear weather from a distance of sixty-eight miles. It forms an excellent land- 
mark. It is called El Yiinqne, or Anvil Peak. In the interior are extensive 
savannahs, on which large herds of cattle are pastured, and along the coasts are 
tracts of level, fertile land. 

The principal ports of export are San Juan and Arecibo on the north coast, 
Aguadilla and Mayagiiez on the west, Guanica, Guayauilla, Ponce, and Arrayo 
on the south, and Humacao and Naguabo on the east coast. 

The ccasts of the island are by no means well known, and urgently need to 
be resurveyed. 

On the eastern coast of Porto Rico there are nine small rivers emptying 
into the sea, and several ports frequented by small vessels to load with sugar and 
molasses. The instructions which can be given for this coast are so deficient that 
it would be by no means safe for a stranger to cruise here without a pilot, who 
may be obtained at San Juan, St. Thomas, or sometimes at Port Mula, on Crab 
Island. 

The population in ISOO was GGG,000. 

Hurricanes. — Although the island is south of the usual track of hurricanes, 
it has been severely visited by them. The cyclones of 1782 and 1825 were espe- 
cially destructive. 

The summit of Mona Island is nearly flat, with a few bushes and trees, and 
it may be seen from a distance of eighteen miles. It is of volcanic formation; its 
north, east, and northwest sides, consisting of high perpendicular bluffs, afford 
no landing place. On the west and southeast sides are a number of caves form- 
ing entrances to extensive subterraneous galleries which run in every direction. 
The surface of the island is composed of calcareous slate-colored rock, full of holes 
containing soil in which the trees and brushwood grow. 

There are numbers of wild goats and hogs on the island, and turtles during 
the season. 

A ridge of rocks runs off the southwest point, and a vessel should not come 
inside the depth of eight fathoms of water, which will be found at the distance 
of one-quarter of a mile. 

The eastern and northern parts of the island are said to be clear of danger 
and steep. Tlie northwest end terminates in a promontory, and its extremitv 



78 PORTO EICO, OUR ANTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

rises to a loftj perpendicular rock, whicli wIr'ii on a bearing X. 6° E. (X. G° 
E. mag.) or S. G° W. (S. G° W. mag.), lias the appearance of a sail, with Monito 
o])en westward of it. From this end, named Cape Rarrionuevo, round by south 
to the east end, the island is bordered by a bank of white sand and rocks with 
eighteen to three and one-half fathoms water on it. It extends off one and 
one-half miles between Capes Barrionuevo and Julia, also called Caigo 6 no Caigo 
Point (I fall, or I don't fall). It takes the latter name from an enormous rock 
on its summit which is very curiously balanced and threatens every moment 
to fall. 

The tides on the eastern coast of Porto Rico run with great strength to the 
northeast seven hours and to the southeast five hours. 

The north coast of Porto Rico is rugged and uneven; it runs in a nearly 
straight line east and west, and between San Juan Head and Port San Juan 
presents no shelter whatever. San Juan Head slopes gradually from the summit 
of the hills to the sea and terminates in a low, but clearly defined point; for about 
fourteen miles westward from the head the coast is com])Osed of dark, rugged 
looking cliffs, breaking down from the mountain side, but as the hills turn inward 
the land becomes low and undulating and appears to be well cultivated, many 
chimneys of steam sugar mills being seen above the trees. From off the west 
end of this high and cliffy portion of the coast, the fortifications and part of 
the city of San Juan will be seen. 

The south coast of Porto Rico is generally foul, and should be very guardedly 
approached, for there is very little correct information respecting it. It appears, 
however, that in some parts soundings extend to a considerable distance from the 
shore, and the lead should, therefore, be well attended. In running down, it is 
advisable not to come within four or five miles of the land. From the offing 
this side of the island appears lofty, but the shore is generally low and bounded 
by mangroves. Sixteen small rivers empty into the sea from this shore, but few- 
are capable of admitting even boats. 

The Bay of Ponce is nearly three miles across between Carenero, the eastern, 
and Cucharros, the western ])oint; the port is in the northeast corner of the 
bay, and on its shore is the village of Port Ponce, containing 1,500 inhabitants. 
The custom-house, a long, white, two-storied building, with flat roof and flagstaff, 
is the most prominent object in the village, and is very consjiicuous from sea- 
ward. The shores are low and bounded by mangrove and cocoanut trees, but 
two or three miles westward of Cucharros Point the land rises and becomes 
hillv. 



ruiITU KICO, OUK ANTILLEAN POSSESSION. 79 

Tlie winds around Porto Eico appear to Le of the same character as those 
met with at the Virgin Islands. There is no regular land breeze to take advantage 
of, although the usual trade wind generally slackens during the night in the 
immediate vicinity of the shore. Under the west end the wind in the daytime 
will incline inward. In the winter months north and northwest winds some- 
times occur, and blow hard, and in the summer long calms and light southeast 
airs prevail, with terrific squalls and heavy rains, especially on the south side. 

Vieques was temporarily occu])ied during the two centuries preceding the 
present by the English and French, but is now entirely under Spanish dominion. 
Its riches and population are developing from day to day in an admirable man- 
ner. Its governnitnt is politico-military, exercised by a colonel. It has a Well- 
built church of masonry at the town of Isabel Segunda. 

On the southern coast, oyiposite the harbor of Ponce, and apparently joined 
to Porto Eico by a reef, is the C'aja de Muerto Island, in which there is a good 
anchoring ground. Its coasts abound in fish and are surrounded by keys. 

To the west of Cape Eojo is the Island of Mona, of volcanic origin. Its 
coasts rise perpendicularly to a great height above the sea level. It is inhabited 
by a few fishermen and abounds in goats, bulls, and swine in a wild state. 

To the north-northeast of the foregoing and opposite Cape Barrionuevo is 
]\Ionito Island. It is a small and elevated rock, inhabited by innumerable water 
fowl. 

Guanica. — A small town of 1,000 inhabitants, on southern coast, about six 
miles south of Yauco, of which city it forms the port, and with which it is con- 
nected by a good road practicable in dry weather. It is situated on the Bay of 
Guanica, which is one of the best ports in the whole island. The banks to the 
right are steep and form a good natural wharf. Three vessels can lie alongside 
iind unload by means of gang plank. Vessels of thirty feet draft can easily enter 
the bay and proceed close inshore. No fortifications or mines. 

Guayama. — A village of 4,500 inhabitants, with a jurisdiction numbering 
12,884. It is the chief town of the judicial district of its name, and is situated 
on the south coast forty-nine miles from San Juan. It has a telephone, a rail- 
road station, a postoffice, and a telegraph station. It was founded in 173G. 

Its church is one of the finest on the island, being rich in altars and orna- 
ments. It was constriicted in 1873, with twenty yards front by forty-four deep. 

San Juan, the capital, is situated on the northern coast, on a long and narrow 
island, separated from the main island, at one end, by a shallow arm of the sea, 
over which is the bridge of San Antonio, connecting it with the mainland, which 



«0 POKTO RICO, OUR AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

runs out at this pDiut in a long sand spit, some nine milt's in length, apparently 
to meet the smaller islands. At the other end the island ends in a rugged blutf or 
promontory some hundred feet high and three-fourths of a mile distant from the 
main island. 

This promontory is crowned by Morro Castle, the principal fortification of 
the town. The form of the castle is that of an obtuse angle, with three tiers 
' «f "batteries, placed one above the other, toward the sea, their fires crossing each 
other. Toward the city it has a wall, flanked by two bastions of heavy artillery, 
which dominates all of the intermediate space, which has the name of Morro, 
and aJso part of the city and the north shore of the sea. It has the usual bar- 
racks, large water tanks, warehouses, chapel, and the necessary offices — all boml)- 
proof. A mine descends from it to the seashore, through the entrance of the 
port, its issue being defended by a battery. 

Mayagiiez is the second port for coffee, the average annual export being 170,- 
000 hundredweights. The quality is of the best, ranging in price with Java 
and other first-rate brands. The lower grades are sent to Cuba. About 50,000 
bags of flour are Imported into this port every year from the United States 
out of the 180,000 bags that are consumed in the whole island. The climate is. 
excellent, the temperature never exceeding 90° F. The city is connected by 
tramway with the neighboring towns of Aguadilla, and a railroad is being con- 
structed to Lares, one of the largest interior towns. It has a civil and military 
hospital, two asylums, a public library, three bridges, a handsome market, con- 
structed of iron, a slaughter-house recently constructed, a theater, etc., and a 
number of societies of instruction, recreation and commerce. It has a postollice 
and telegrajih station. It was founded in 17G0, was -given the title of villa (village) 
in 1836, and that oi city in 1877. 

On the east and south it is bounded by the Hormigueros Mountains, on 
the north by those of Aiiasco, and on the west by the sea. The part comprised 
by the vega (plain) is very fertile, and here are grown all fruits of the island. 

Aguadilla. — A city of 5,325 inhabitants, of whom 4,200 are white and 1,125 
colored. The municipal jurisdiction has 16,085 inhabitants — 11,100 white and 
4,985 colored. It is the capital and port of the judicial district of its name, and 
is situated eighty-one miles from San Juan. The climate is hot but healtliy, 
and there yellow fever seldom a]i]iears. It has a iiosfotlice and telegraph station. 

It has one of the most picturesque aspects of any town in the country. It 
is situated on the shore between Cape Borinquen and Culebrinas River, at the foot 
of Jaicoa Mountain, stretching along in a narrow strip between the sea and the 



O 

w 

H 

o 



o 

a 
z 

H 



O 

d 







roirro uko, uik axtii.leax posskssiox. s^ 

latter. The mountain is very steep, crowned with leafy trees, and on its slopes 
are many orange and lemon trees, palms, etc. A stream of crystalline water 
flows from a spring about half way up its side, and passing through Fuente, 
Mirador, and C'omcrcio streets of the town, empties into the sea. 

To add to the scenic beauty of the town and mountain a church rises from 
the mountain side near the source of the stream mentioned. It is of antique 
construction and has two steeples, and, although old, is in good repair; there is 
a 1 It'll in one steeple and a clock in the other. 

Father Thomas Ewing Sherman ■ — "Father Tom," as his friends call him, 
the son of General William Tecumseh Sherman, has made a report to General 
Brooke of recent tours through the Island of Porto Eico, and they have been 
made public by Assistant Secj;etary Meiklejohn through the division of customs 
and insular affairs. Father Sherman says that as far as he observed the people 
of Porto Rico are gentle, docile and kindly and that the Spaniards living there 
rejoice with their Porto Eican friends in the change of sovereignty. The dis- 
orderly element is a very small fraction in the teeming population of the island. 
There is some timidity expressed on the part of property-holders, but this is largely 
due to the paternal system to which they have become accustomed. He says that 
a liberal public outlay on the roads would add immensely to the commerce and 
security of the island. 

Father Sherman says it is common talk that the disorders of the last few 
months have been caused by bands composed partly of prisoners released by the 
Spaniards and of Spanish soldiers discharged and remaining in the island. Having, 
he says, ridden about the island alone and as a rule unarmed for the last three 
months, having visited many priests and alcaldes and prominent merchants, he 
is strongly impressed by the fact that profound respect is felt for American 
authority and utmost confidence in tlie courage of any and all of our men. 

At the same time, Father Sherman says,, we cannot too strongly emphasize 
the needs of an island at once tropical and mountainous, where the bandit finds 
myriad nooks for hiding and easy sustenance even on the mountain tops; where 
passions are easily heated and an overcrowded population leaves large numbers out 
of employment. 

Father Sherman says the state of religion on the island is very unsatisfactory. 
Though in every town of any size there is found a large and handsome edifice, 
the services are very poorly attended. All the inhabitants of the island, with few 
exceptions, are nominally at least Roman Catholics. Very few of the men are 
more than Catholic in name. They are baptized, married and buried by the 



84 PORTO KICO, Ol'R AXTILLEAX POSSESSION. 

priest; that is the extent of their Catholicism. Now that the priests are deprived 
of governmental aid manj' are leaving the country and more intend to depart 
before the winter is over. 

Religion is dead on the island, ^\'hethe^ it can be revived as a living influ- 
ence is highly problematical. There is little or no observance of the sanctity 
of Sunday. 

With regard to education Father Sherman says he is not i)repared to make 
anything like a full report, and the system of burial in Porto Rico has been bar- 
barous. In ]ilaces corpses are thrown into sliallow graves, sometimes without 
boxes or casket. The cemeteries are too small and frequently crowded. 

The state of morality can be inferred from the fact that the mmiber of 
illegitimate children exceeds that of the Icgitimal*. Concubinage is said to be 
common and is not sufficiently discountenanced, either legally or socially. The 
eradication of this great evil presents one of the most diiTicult problems in Porto 
Rico, owing to the mixture of races there. It is often asserted that the Catholic 
clergy are partly to blame for this de])lorable state of affairs, because marriage is 
said to be expensive. 



CHAPTER III. 

EARLY DESCRIPTIONS OF PORTO RICO. 

Instructive Description of the Island Sixty-four Years Ago by Colonel Flinter of 
the British Army and Spanish Service — More from the Same Writer Quoted 
by the London Review — Valuable Statistics from the Edinburgh Review — 
Rev. Wm. Moister Adds Interesting Information— Natural Resources, Com- 
mercial Advantages and Physical Conditions Clearly Described — Social and 
Moral Standing of the People Fully Considered — Testimony that Reveals 
the Value of Our Insular Gem. 

The Edinburgh Review of 1835, page 329, gives a most interesting account of 
the Island of Porto Rico, sixty-four years ago, by Colonel Flinter of the British 
army and Spanish service. This article in the famous Review has the recom- 
mendation of presenting us with a full and interesting account of this valuable 
island, less known to this country than even Japan or Madagascar. It possesses 
the additional value of being the production of a writer who evidently formed 
his opinions on his own account. His sentiments do not savor of any class or 
school; on the contrary, he frequently advances in the same breath positions 
which are usually maintained by persons of opposite principles in political mat- 
ters. Being dn oificer in the service of Spain, he had a high respect for the admin- 
istration of the late King Ferdinand and a thorough contempt for all the various 
liberal sects which overturned his absolute throne and took his daughter under 
their protection. He, moreover, holds in abhorrence all the ))romoters of South 
American revolutions. 

"Colonel Flinter appears to have commanded, for several years, the regiment 
of Spanish troops which was in permanent garrison at Porto Rico and must have 
h.ad anii)le opportunities of becoming fully acquainted with its internal condition. 
It will be perceived, no doubt, that his local partialities sometimes lead him into 
apjjarent overstatements and manifest contradictions; but every candid reader will 
make allowance for the spirit of exaggeration that appears occasionally, to dictate 
his eulogies on his favorite colony. 

"The early history of Porto Rico affords few features of interest. Although 

one of the oldest colonies of the Spanish crown, it served for three centuries 

only as a convict station; and its free population presented until a few years ago 

a marked specimen of the besotted indolence which characterized a Spanish settle- 

85 



86 



EARLY DESCKIPTIONS OF POlfTO RICO. 



iiient of the old times. The military and civil expen-ses were defrayed by remit- 
tances from Mexico: and it was not until the revolution caused these remittances 
to cease in 1810 ihat the island, owing to the extreme embarrassment of its financial 
condition bepan to attract the notice of the mother country. In 1815 a decree was 
published in its behalf, distinguished like many of the early acts of the restored 
government l)y its enlightened sagacity. But this decree, whilst it greatly 
encouraged free industry, unfortunately at the same time gave an im^iulse to the 
employment of slave labor, which had hitherto been unused, rather from indolence 
and want of capital than from motives of humanity. Colonists were invited 
to the island on the most liberal terms — lands were allotted gratis, the settlers 
were free from direct taxes, and for a certain number of years from the tithes 
and alcabala, as well as from the exportation duties which formed one of the 
most impolitic features of the old Spanish system. From the period of this 
decree the advance of Porto Rico in wealth and population has been unexampled, 
even in the virgin regions of America. A great additional impulse was given by 
the arrival of capitalists driven by civil war from the Spanish main: — men dis- 
tinguished in the more prosperous times of South America for their steady regu- 
larity and probity in the transaction of business. 

"The island appears to be one of the most lovely of all those regions of love- 
liness which are washed by the Caribbean Sea. Even in that archipelago it is 
distinguished by the luxuriance of its vegetation, and the soft variety of its scenery. 
Tt com])rises every kind of tropical landscape in a space not much exceeding the 
area of one of the larger English counties. Like Jamaica, it is divided from 
east to west by a range of forest-covered mountains, which do not appear to 
exceed 3,000 or 4,000 feet in height, but which are suificient to create a very 
marked difference of climate between their opposite declivities. The northern dis- 
trict is moist, subject not only to the periodical rains of the West Indies, but 
visited also by occasional showers. Hence its undulating surface is adapted for 
pasture and the more ordinary kinds of cultivation and is intersected by numerous 
perennial rivers, whilst the southern part of the island is frequently without 
rain for many months together, although even here water, according to our author, 
is alwavs found at half a vard below the surface. The sugar cane, notwithstanding 
the drought, thrives abundantly and most of the chief plantations of the island 
are formed on this coast. This inestimable benefit of moisture Porto Rico 
derives from its foresti?, which as yet clothe a large portion of the interior, the 
thick cover at once attracting the rain and preventing evaporation. By the laws 
of the colony every person who cuts down a tree is bound to plant three in its 



EAELY DESCEIPTIOXS OF PORTO RICO. 87 

• 
place. But it is to be feared tliat a law so difficult of enforcement is habitually 

violated and that it will come, like some other islands, which formerly exhibited 

a similar feature, to present a naked surface to the ineffectual vapors of the 

Atlantic; its fertility will then diminish and its perennial rivers waste away, even 

as the clearing of the forests from various parts of the Mediterranean coast — in 

peninsular Greece and Sicily for example — which were well wooded within the 

historical era, has diminished the classical rivers of anticjuity into mere historical 

torrents. 

"Although the climate of Porto Rico does not appear to differ nuiterially, as 
far as its eflfects can l)c measured by instruments, from that of the other islands of 
the (iulf of Mexico, yet its inhabitants certainly seem to enjoy a more than 
ordinary exemption from the evils which afflict humanity in these sickly regions. 
The mortality, according to our author's tables, does not exceed that which prevails 
in some of the healthier countries of Europe. A still more singular characteristic 
appears to distinguish this island from its neighbors, namely, the great deficiency 
of native animals of every sort and especially the entire absence (if our author can 
be credited) of those noxious reptiles and insects which seem to inherit the rest 
of the West Indies as their peculiar possession. Colonel Flinter says: 

" 'Like the peasantry of Ireland, the Porto Ricans are proverbial for their 
hospitality, and, like them, they are ever ready to fight on the slightest provocation. 
Thev swing themselves to and fro in their hammocks all day long, smoking their 
cigars and scraping a guitar. The jjlantain groves which surround their houses 
and the cofl'ee-tree which grows almost without cultivation alford them a frugal 
sustenance. The cabins are thatched with the leaves of the palm tree; the sides 
are often open, or merely constructed of the same sort of leaves as the roof — 
such is the mildness of the climate. Some cabins have doors, others have none. 
A few calabash shells and earthen pots — one or two hammocks made of the bark 
of the i)alm tree — two or three game cocks and a machete form the extent of 
tluir movable property. A few coffee-trees and plantains, a cow or a horse, an 
acre of land in corn or sweet potatoes, constitute the property of what would be 
denominated a comfortable Xaviro — who, mounted on his meager and hard-worked 
horse, sallies forth from his cabin to mass, to a cockfight — or to a dance, thinking 
himself the most independent and hai>py being in existence. 

■' "Riding out one afternoon in the country, I was overtaken by one of those 
sudden showers common in tropical climates. I fled for shelter to the nearest 
cotta<^e of a poor Xaviro. 1 placed my horse without cerenu)ny under the pro- 
jecting roof. I entered the humble dwelling with the usual salute, which is the 



88 EARLY DESCRIPTIOXS OF PORTO RICO. 

* 
same as in Ireland, "Ood save all here," ^vllich was courteously answered by the 

man of the house. He was coiled up in a hammock. One foot rested on the 

ground, with which he propelled the hammock to and fro, and at intervals with 

his great toe he turned a large sweet potato which was roasting on a few embers 

])laced on a flag on the ground close to him. He had a guitar in his hand. On 

my entrance he offered me the hammock, which I, of course, refused. Two small 

children, perfectly naked, were swinging to and fro in another small hammock. 

The woman of the house was squatted on the floor, feeding four game cocks which 

were lodged in the best part of the house, while the husband every now and 

then would warn her not to give them too much corn or too much water. The 

people received me with an urbanity unknown to the peasantry of Northern 

Europe. They placed a large leaf of the palm tree over my saddle to protect 

it from the rain, and pressed me to sit down in the kindest manner. The host 

was very communicative and enumerated the battles his game cocks had won. 

He pointed out to me one which he said was "a most delicate one," an expression 

made use of by the Xaviros to denote its great value, and he concluded by offering 

it to me as a present. Indeed a Xaviro would form a very poor opinion of a 

person who could not discn.«s the merits of a game cock. In going away they 

offered me their cabin with as much politeness as if had been a palace, and hoped 

to see me again. I was forcibly struck with the native courtesy of these people, 

and it gratified me to observe the content and hapjiiness they enjoy without a 

thought for the present or care for the future — without wants, without wishes, 

without ambition.' " 

The Monthly Review, London, 1834, gave an account of the state of the Island 
of Porto Rico in that year, taking Colonel Flinter's book as a basis, and saying: 

"The author in his leisure hours from his first landing as a British officer 
in the West Indies, twenty-one years ago, to a late period when he has been 
doing duty on the staff of the Spanish army which garrisons the colonies of Her 
Most Catholic Majesty, have been dedicated to the acquisition of every informa- 
tion that could throw light on the colonial policy of Spain. His principal object 
is to make known the great and growing importance of the colonies that remain 
to S]iain in the western hemisphere, and especially of the valuable and fertile 
Island of Porto Rico. There is doubtless about Colonel Flinter a strong admira- 
tion of what is Sjianish, and yet the author recommends to the Government 
of Her Catholic ^fajesty immediately to drive back from the ports of Cuba to the 
coast of Africa every slave ship with its cargo that might be captured by the 



EAELY DESCRIPTIONS OF POETO EICO. 89 

cruisers of France or Eugland. At first, and for the space of three centuries after 
its discovery, notwithstanding all the advantages of soil and situation, Porto 
Rico was considered only as a place of banishment for the malefactors of the 
mother country. But in 1815 a royal decree was passed fraught with beneficent 
and enlightened views. Flourishing towns and smiling villages have risen. Colonel 
Flinter says: 

" 'The person who carries into foreign countries national habits and preju- 
dices will always find abundant room for ridicule and criticism. A stranger who 
had never visited Spain or her colonies, on reading the prejudiced and false 
descriptions given of them by many modern writers, would dread to sleep a single 
night among the inhabitants. But the writer who honestly aims at furnishing 
the public with sound and accurate information, should divest himself of all 
illiberal and narrow propositions. He should look on the whole world as his 
country and on all mankind as his countrymen. 

" 'Eome, the greatest empire of the world, was first peopled by robbers and 
assassins. It need not, therefore, appear strange that this island should have 
received a part of her white inhabitants from the dregs of society as well as 
some from the higher classes. This, perhaps, has happened at the first coloniza- 
tion of almost all countries. Portb Eico was formerly only a military post; and 
the troojis that garrisoned it were stationary. The officers, despairing of returning 
to Europe, married with the Creole ladies, niany of whom, proud of descending 
from the first conquerors, were considered noble. In this manner the officers, 
becoming at once soldiers and agriculturists, looked on Porto Eico as their home, 
and they and their children form a considerable part of the white ])opulation 
that is this day found here. Many of the most opulent and respectable families 
descend from them. They look back with pride to their origin, and they form 
an indissoluble link of connection with the mother country. These and the 
descendants from the' conquerors form what may be called the Porto Eico aristoc- 
racy, and some of them support their pretensions with as much pride as if they 
were grandees of Spain. Even in the midst of poverty they are inexorable in 
exacting from their inferiors the homage paid to superior rank. Merchants, shop- 
keepers, and all the inferior branches of traders and mechanics, have more or less 
contributed to the white population. 

" 'The merchants of this island import and retail foreign goods. They are 
generally composed of the active and industrious Catallans, persevering and eco- 
nomical, are much attached to their native customs and native land. They seldom 
marry or establish themselves permanently in the colonies. When they have 



90 EAKLY DESCEIPTIONS OF PORTO KICO. 

realized a competency, tliey retire to Europe to enjoy the fruits of their industry, 
while their place is generally supplied by their young relations, who follow the 
same occupation and the same line of conduct. They may therefore be con- 
sidered rather as transient visitors than as a permanent part of the population. 

" 'Tradesmen and artisans generally marry and establish themselves perma- 
nently. Tliis class of people, if they conduct themselves with propriety, are sure 
of doing well. I know two blacksmiths who have made fortunes, and I know 
an Irish carpenter, who a few years ago came to this island with only twenty 
dollai-s, and who in the space of five years has become possessed of prn])erty to 
Ibe value of twenty thousand dollars, vhicli he acquired by a sedulous attention to 
his business: such is the rapid accumulation of capital by industry in these 
countries. The acquisition raises the blacksmith and the carpenter to a higher 
rank in society; they become laud proprietors and associate with the aristocracy.' 

"The Colonel goes on to say that the island swarms with what might be 
called 'bunco-steerers,' gaudily dressed foreigners announcing themselves to be of- 
the European nobility, who go about seeking whom they may devour. And there 
are also swarms of French barbers, pretending to be great physicians and doing 
incalculable harm and feeling no responsibility for the many lives lost through 
their inability. The author also speaks of a 'very mischievous set of men,' foreign 
lawyers who often defend both parties at the same time and 'how many unfortu- 
nate men have been condemned to dj'ag a chain who have deserved it a thousand 
times less than these men, who, like a swarm of locusts, desolate the land where 
they alight.' Continuing, the Colonel says: 

" 'The last class of whites which I have to describe require a separate and 
j)artieular consideration, as they form no inconsiderable portion of those who liave 
colonized this island. These are men who, for political or civil crimes, have been 
sent to the galleys of this fortress. They are condemned for different periods, 
according to the nature of their offenses; at the expiration of their term of punish- 
iiient they are set at liberty, and few of them have any inducement to return to 
their native country. Tf their conduct is good, their former faults are soon 
forgotten: if active and industrious, they soon find employment. They are looked 
on with ])ity rather than with detestation. To be white is a species of title of 
nobility in a country where the slaves and people of color form the lower ranks of 
society, and where every grade of color ascending from the jet-black negro to 
the pure white carries with it a certain feeling of superiority. You might naturally 
expect to find society and manners in some degree tinctured with the vices and 
]ropensities of these convicts. It is something novel and extraordinarv to see 



EAKLY DESCRIPTIONS OF POETO EICO. 91 

ir.tn who liavo been dragging a crimiiiars chain, on a sudden becoming peaceable 
and orderly citizens. Eemoved far from the scene of their former offenses, far 
from the vigilant and persecuting eye of the laws they had outraged, and the 
persons they had oft'ended, removed far beyond the view of the relatives and 
friends they had dishonored, they feel desirous of returning to the bosom of society 
in a country where their persons and their crimes are unknown. The Creoles 
of Porto Eico, ever ready to e.xtend their arms to the unfortunate, ever generous 
and hospitable, have their sympathy doubly awakened at seeing a white man 
reduced to a state of misery greater than that of the African slave. The moment 
that the banished criminal sets his foot on tlie land of Porto Eico, a prospect of 
hope opens to his view. He sees many of those who have preceded him in crime 
restored to society, possessing property, and living in the bosom of their families: 
this example, this hope, is a strong inducement to good conduct. To return to 
Spain his record woidd be like a millstone around his neck. It is not so in Porto 
Eico. 

" 'Tlie native of Porto Eico is passionately fond of horses. The Xivaro 
must be very poor, indeed, who has not one or two horses, which serve to carry 
both his jDerson and the produce of his land to market: for the Xaviro, be his 
horse ever so lean, or the burden ever so heavy, seats himself on the top of it and 
thus guides the animal. He will sooner steal a horse for a day and ride him 
than walk a league. The rich have always several saddle horses which are solely 
reserved for riding. A large pillion made of strong linen and stuffed with straw 
is girded on the horse's Ijack; two square wicker baskets, very neatly made, about 
a foot long and eight inches wide, united by a leather strap, are thrown over the 
pillion on either side, close to the horse's neck. They are firmly girded on. A 
cushion is placed on the pillion, which is covered with a cloak or carpet to protect 
from the rain. Every man in the country, rich and poor, carries an immense 
baskct-hilted sword a yard and a quarter long, which is placed in the basket or 
under the cushion-panel with the point sticking out behind and waving to and 
fro in the air. There are no stirrups. The horseman, or horsewoman, sits on 
the cushion with the face towards the horse's head, the feet gently hanging on 
either side of his neck; and the baskets which have handles to them serve to hold 
by in case of emergency. A person mounted on horseback in this way has a very 
curious appearance, hut it is a commodious and easy way of traveling. Two per- 
sons can ride on the same horse, and the. man travels in this way with his wife 
or daughters. If the horse happens to stumble on a bad road, the rider seldom 



•92 EARLY DESCRIPTIOXS OF PORTO RICO. 

.sustains an injury from a fall. In crossing streams the feet are kept dry, which 
is so important to health in warm climates. 

" 'The women of Porto Rico are generally of the middle size. They are 
elegantly and delicately formed; their waists are tapering and slender. Their 
pale complexion creates interest, which is heightened by the brilliancy of their 
fine black eyes. Their hair is black as jet; their eyebrows arched. They have, 
in a high degree, that seductive and elegant air which distinguishes the ladies 
of Cadiz. They walk with the grace which is peculiar to the fair of Andalusia. 
Their manners are not only pleasing but fascinating. Without having the advan- 
tage of the brilliant education of the ladies of London or Paris, they are pos- 
sessed of great natural vivacity, and an ease of manners which in England is 
only to be found in the best society. They converse with fluency, and their natural 
talent and wit supply the artificial aids of education. They are, on the whole, 
more interesting than beautiful, more amiable than accomplished. They dress 
with an elegance of taste that I have seldom seen sur])assed; the Parisian fashions 
being invariably followed and imitated. The public balls are splendid. A stranger 
who should walk through the city in daytime or in the evening, meeting with not 
a single female, except persons of color, would be surprised at night to attend 
a public ball. His eyes would be dazzled by an assemblage of Porto Rico ladies; 
he would scarcely believe that he was in the same capital where he could not find, 
during the whole day, the trace of a fair one. This admiration is expressed by 
all strangers, for most certainly the ladies of this island, in a ballroom, would 
do honor to any country in the world. Although too little attention is paid to 
cultivating their natural abilities, yet there are many of them who, by the force 
merely of talent and application, have made great proficiency in French and ]iaint- 
ing. Without being taught by a dancing master, they dance with grace and ele- 
gance, and, like all the ladies of America, they are fond to excess of dancing. 
They are passionately fond of their own country. !iut they have the politeness 
and good breeding in conversation not to make odious comparison of it with 
others. In domestic circles they are affectionate wives, tender mothers, and attached 
and faithful friends. 

"'They criticise dresses, speak of marriages, discuss love affairs, and pry into 
their neighbors" concerns, precisely as happens in almost all small places in all 
countries. Wliy should this island be an exception to the general rule? We 
speak of mortals, not of angels. I have heard it asserted before I visited the island 
that the ladies were much addicted to smoking cigars. T have never seen thcin 
smoke, I must confess: and if many of them do indulge they must do it very 



EAKLY DFSfRirTIOXS OF PORTO RICO. 93 

privately. However, I should jjrefer to see a lady smoking than drinking gin, 
as some are said to do in Germany and Holland. The women soon come to 
maturity in this climate; they marry very young, are exceedingly prolific, and 
consequently their charms decay at an early age, when in Europe they would he 
in the full bloom of beauty. It is not an uuconmion thing to see a grandmother 
and her grandchildren in the same dance. All the ladies, whether rich or poor, 
if white are on visiting terms. Visits arc made and received with the most 
punctilious exactness. The ladies seldom go out of doors, unless to the shops 
at night, or the country on horseback. In the evenings they take the air on 
the flat roofs of their houses. They bathe frequently, and are very attentive 
to the cleanliness of their persons and theii- houses.' " 

The Edinburt:h Review of 1835, page 33-i, says: 

"Porto Rico produced in 1830 414 quintals of sugar, 250,000 of coffee, and 
35,000 of cured tobacco, besides other colonial produce, and it possessed in addi- 
tion very numerous herds of cattle, divided among numerous proprietors — from 
the three or four who owned upwards of a thousand each to the jioorest of the 
peasantry who possessed a cow or two for the supply of their family. The revenue 
is stated at 800,000 Spanish dollars: its whole expense, civil and military, at 
630,000. 

"The free colored inhabitants of Porto Rico are by far more numerous than 
in any other West India island, and this fact alone — when we consider the inerad- 
icable prejudice attaching to color which has brought such infinite misery and 
social discomfort over a great part of the world — speaks more than any eulogy 
in favor of its people and their government. The whole British West Indies 
contained before 1834 not more than 80,000 free colored inhabitants, and a 
population of ten times that amount. Of these 16,000 were to be found in 
Trinidad alone, — an island which had long been governed by Spanish laws. 
Although white blood is in Porto Rico, as everywhere else beyond the Atlantic, 
a patent of nobility, yet the Xaviro no more treats with contempt and contumely 
his inferior in caste, than the grandee of Old Spain his inferior in station. 
* * * (Colonel Flinter quoted:) 'No national character, perhaps, is so deeply 
engrained with the opposite hues of excellence and evil as that of the Spaniard. 
The same natural and fundamental goodness of .disposition — paradoxical as it may 
seem to speak thus of a people whose evil deeds are blazoned in the worst pages 
of European history, — prevails wherever the Castilian standard has been raised, and 
the industrious Catalan and Biscaran have assembled around it. The Spaniard 



04 KAIM.Y DKSCI.'II'TIOXS OF I'oiri'o i;i((). 

is, above all inankiiul. f^uliject to stn>ii<r and nviTiiuwcriiig ]assion. His good- 
ness of disposition, although radical, is hut a passive (piality, easily suhdued by 
the prevalence of strong emotions. His reasoning powers arc of the same char- 
acter as his moral — fimdanientally good, yet swayed and distorted hy every impulse 
of prejudice. Thirst for gold in former times, tlien zeal for religion, and, lastly, 
the sjtirit of party, have roused up in him all the savage ferocity of which nature 
is capable. Yet in the worst crisis of the passions, when the evil spirit was silenced 
even for a moment in the bosom which it swayed, a natural and grateful kindness 
of heart has often shone forth in full brightness. It was while the mania of 
avarice rided the early conquerors of America and seduced them into practices 
revolting to human nature, that the foundations were laid for a code of laws 
both for slaves and the native Indians, the sj)irit of which lias ever since pre- 
vailed among the Spanish Creoles, and which puts to shame the nations which 
arrogate to themselves exclusively the title of enlightened. Shallow thinkers have 
often entertained the ]:arado.\ that free states sliow less humanity in their colonics 
than is shown those tinder absolute monarchies. Of all AVcst Indian annals, those 
of the French islands, before the Kevolution, were, jierhaps, the most darkly 
stained with cruelty. And the free states of South America, on the other hand, 
have liot only followed, but have still lurther extended, in the midst of their 
anarcliy and factions, those principles of Christian mercy and justice which Spain 
alone, until recently, knew and practiced.' 

"In l»-i3 Jamaica, with 340,000 slaves, exported l,400,noii <iuintals of sugar. 
Porto Uico, with 45,000 slaves, produces about llO.diid. 'I'lu. French colony of 
Cundaloupe, with twice as many slaves as Porto Pico, ])r()diices an equal crop of 
siijar. The soil of the latter is far nicire fertile than tliat of the other islands, 
already in a great measure exhausted. Ijiit, on the other hand, capital and industry 
form essential elements of the manufacture, in the British and French isles, while 
the S])aniards are far behind in the ]nirsiiits re(|uiring either. From these premises 
our author concludes, not unreasonably, that a large proportion (which elsewhere, 
however, he calculates at one-fiflh only) of this crop of .sugar is raised by free 
labor. 

'■l'>ut it must be remembered that, besides the greater estates, there are in 
Porto Eico some 1,200 to 1,300 small sugar plantation.*, tlie property of the 
Xaviros of the interior, who live cheaply and work lazily, but who contrive to 
raise a small (|iiantity of this valuable article, together with provisions and cattle. 
If such rough cultivation as this succeeds at all, it can only be in consequence 
of the vast ])roductiveness of the soil, deared of its forests only within the last 



EARLY DESCmrTlOXS OF PORTO RICO. 95 

twenty years, ■n-hicli gives the planter the same advantage over his brethren to 
windward and leeward as the settler of Illinois has over the cultivator of the 
worn-out 'old fields' of the Atlantic coast. Such production can in the nature 
of things be only temporary. On the other hand, the great sugar estates, which 
must form the main sources of this commodity, are evidently cultivated here as 
elsewhere — by slaves; and, although at present the cultivation of sugar on a 
large scale is extremely unprofitable, a rise in its price would undoubtedly cause 
at once an increased importation of slaves, and the application of more capital 
and ingenuity to the business, until the small farmers would be driven from the 
market by the slave-owning capitalists. Many contingent events might occasion 
such a rise; — as a temporary diminution of the produce of the British Islands; or 
an increased consumption in Great Britain in consequence of a reduction of the 
dtity. Upon the whole, therefore, notwithstanding the flattering anticipations 
of the author, we cannot sec, in the present state of Porto Rico, much to justify his 
prophecy that slave labor will be permanently dispensed with merely from the 
preference which free labor will find in the market. 

'"At present the question of tlie future destiny of this Iwautiful and hapi)y 
island may be said to remain undecided." 

The decision of destiny came when Spain ceded the island to the I'nited 
States. 

Xaturally, as England has been for centuries deeply interested in the West 
Indies, we derive the most valuable accounts of the islands, the character of their 
people, and their histoi-y from Englishmen, and we quote the ''West Indies," 
by the Rev. Wm. Cloister, a London ]>ulilication l)y T. Woolmer: 

"The Island of Porto Rico is situated about sixty miles to the east of San 
Domingo, from which it is separated by the Mona Pas.sage. It is of an oblong 
shape, about 140 miles in length and forty in breadth, and its climate, soil and 
■scenery resemble most of the other West Indian kslands, and therefore need not be 
very minutely described. .It is rugged and mountainous in the interior regions 
and the country is generally diversified by woods, valleys and plains and watered 
by numerous springs and rivers, which impart a remarkable freshness to the scenery 
throughout the year. Four of the rivers which flow from the mountains to the 
sea are navigable for boats and small vessels for a few miles up into the country 
and are utilized for the transit of goods and produce; and thus compensate in 
a measure the lack of good roads, which is so notorious. The north coast is gen- 
erally lined by a coral reef under water at a little distance from shore, which ])re- 



<)(; EAKLY DKSCRIPTIOXS OF POKTO KIC'O. 

vents the approach of shijjs except at certain openings. The east coast is indented 
with many bays formed by the continued action of the waves of the sea, which 
roll in with considerable force in that direction. A chain of about fifty small 
islands, extending more than twenty miles in length, lie off the northeast coast, 
which were the favorite rendezvous of smugglers and pirates in the times of the 
buccaneers, the water which surrounds them being so shallow that they cannot 
be approached by large vessels. The principal harbor is large and commodious, 
atrording ample accommodation for 300 vessels at one time. It is approached 
from the sea by a winding, rocky channel, the navigation of which is somewhat 
intricate; a circumstance which gives security to tlie place in times of war and 
commotion. 

"Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 14'J3, but, like many other islands, 
it received little attention for several years in consequence of the claims of more 
important places. In 1509, however, the extermination of the natives and the 
exhaustion of the gold mines of Hispaniola had so far advanced that the avaricious 
Spaniards began to look about for other fields of enterprise. They accordingly 
fixed upon Porto Eico, and an expedition was fitted out under the direction of 
a man named Ponce de Leon with a view to make a conquest of the island, which 
was at that time said to contain a population of about 600,000 aborigines. 

"The simple-minded Indians had heard of the calamities which had befallen 
their countrjTnen in Hispaniola since the arrival of the pale-faced strangers, and 
when they saw big ships in the distance they trenibkd at the prospect of their 
approaching fate. But so superstitious were they that the preposterous notions 
which they had associated with their ideas of the Spaniards entirely overpowered 
their reason and bereft them of hope. They considered them a superior race 
of beings, and even doubted whether they were mortal. Instead, therefore, of 
attempting to oppose the landing of their enemies, their chief consideration seems 
to have been how they might most gracefully submit themselves to their yoke. 
The invaders consequently landed on the shores of Porto Rico without meeting 
with any re.«istance whatever, and made an easy conquest of the place without 
the lo.*^ of a man. The Spaniards proceeded at once to intrench and fortify them- 
selves and to search for gold, which was the highest object of their ambition. 
They were conducted to the mountains, where shining particles of the precious 
metal had often been collected in the sandy beds of the rivulets which flowed from 
Ibem. Jlining operations were commenced, and the natives, who were regarded 
as a conquered people and a race of slaves, were subjected to the same enforced 



EAKLY DESCEIPTIO^S OF TOliTO HiCO. 97 

labor and cruel trealnii'iit which had ground down and wasted the natives of 
Hispaniola. 

"The Indians were soou oonviueed tluit they had gained nothing by their 
ready submission to the Sjianiards, and, writhing under the miseries to which they 
were subjected, they began to consider whether it were not still possible to resist 
the tyranny of their oppressors. For some time they hesitated to take any action 
in the matter under the superstitious notion that, if the Spaniards should prove 
immortal and incapable of death, their resistance would be vain and only tend 
to aggravate their sufferings. At length a plan was arranged for the settlement 
of this moot point. A cacique named Broyo was charged with the important 
business of ascertaining by some means 'whether a Spaniard could possibly die.' 
Broyo, attentive to his charge, suffered no promising moment to pass unnoticed, 
although to elude suspicion and escape detection required no small dexterity on 
his part. It was not long, however, before a favorable opportunity presented itself. 
Salzedo, a young Spaniard, was traveling one day in a direction in which Broyo 
wished to intercept him. The chief, having entertained the lonely white man 
in his hut for awhile very agreeably, offered the services of two or three of his 
men to act as escorts, or guides, on his departure. The proposal was agreed to 
with expressions of gratitude. The Indian guides well understood their business. 
On coming to a small river one of them offered to convey the Spaniard across on 
his shoulders, and w'hen in the midst of the stream, staggering under his precious 
burden, he managed to stumble, and in his fall he- plunged on one side into deep 
water. His companions hastened forward, pretending to render assistance, but 
instead of doing so they held the traveler's head under water until he was drowned. 
They then dragged the body to the bank of the river and having watched it 
attentively all that day and the next, without observing any motion or signs 
of life, they came to the conclusion that 'a Spaniard could die.' 

"Encouraged by this strange experiment, the Indians now resolved to make 
a vigorous attempt to cast off the yoke of the invaders, which had become 
intolerable. They rose en masse and armed themselves with such weapons as 
they could command. These were chiefly clubs and bows and arrows. Their 
arrows they dipped in virulent poison prepared from the sap of the Manchineel 
tree, which abounds in Porto Eico, a wound from which issues almost invariably 
a speedy death. The Indians fell upon the Spaniards at a moment when they little 
expected such an attack, and they suffered considerably, one hundred of their 
number falling on the field. The unequal contest was of short duration, how- 
ever, for the glittering deadly weapons of the Spaniards with the smoke and roar 



98 EAELY DESCliirTlU.XS Ui' ruKTU UlCO. 

of their guns soon dispersed the Indians with great loss and caused the survivors 
to iJee precipitately to the woods and mountain fastnesses to escape the fury of 
the invaders. 

'"The Spaniards now sent for re-enforcements to Hispaniola, effectually to 
put down what they called the 'rebellion' of the natives of Porto Rico. They 
soon received an accession of colonists, soldiers, and bloodhounds, and a war of 
extermination was fortliwith commenced, the details of which are too sickening 
to record in these pages. Suffice it to say that the scenes of cruelty and of blood 
wliicli followed were similar in every respect to those which liad been wit- 
nessed in Hispaniola and Cuba, and were literally disgraceful to any people bearing 
the Christian name and calling themselves civilized. 

"In proportion as the number of colonists increased, the want of laborers to 
work the mines, till the ground, triid tlie cattle, and perform other necessary duties 
on the plantations was felt, and the attention of the Spaniards was at once turned 
to Africa, from whence negro .slaves were being constantly imported into the other 
colonies, with such satisfactory results, according to the ideas which were prevalent 
at that early period. The impulse given to the horrid traffic in human Ijeings by 
the establishment of another Spanish colony in the West Indies may be readily 
imagined from what we have said in reference to Hispaniola and Cuba under sim- 
ilar circumstances, for the sufferings and sorrows of the poor negro slaves were 
almost identical in all the islands. 

"The colony of Porto Rico progressed rajiidly under the new regime, large 
tracts of land being brought under cultivation, plantations laid out, and additional 
houses erected both in town and country. But a time of general war came, and 
this, in common with other dependencies of the ei-own of Spain, was exposed to 
hostile attacks, wliicli were sn common in those days. As early as 1580, England 
being involved in war with Spain, an important expedition was fitted out partly 
by Queen Elizabeth and partly fiy private enterprise, the avowed object of which 
was to attack and seize upon some of tlie most valuable colonies of America and 
the West Indies. The entire squadron consisted of tvienty-six ships of different 
dimensions, on board of which were embarked 2J>00 troops under the leadership of 
Sir Thomas Baskerville. The command of the entire expedition was committed 
to Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. On reaching the West Indies they 
heard that a richly laden Spanish treasure ship was at anchor in the harbor of 
Porto Rico, and an attack uyion tlie jilaee was pronqitly resolved ujkhi. The squad- 
ron reached the island on Xovember 13th, and a vigorous attack was made upon 
the shipping in the port. But the Sjianiards, having lieard of the intended attack. 






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j:ai;ly dk^ciui'TIuns oi" ruirro lucu. loi 

had made every possible preparation to resist it. They had brought in all their 
available troops and strengthened the fortifications at the entrance of the harbor, 
from which they poured such a destriictive fire upon the English ships that they 
were obliged to retire, after inflicting considerable damage, without accomplishing 
the object of their visit. 

"In the year 1589 another expedition was fitted out in England for the express 
purpose of subduing the island of Porto Rico. The command of this armament, 
which consisted of nineteen ships and two barges, was given to Sir George Clifford, 
Earl of Cumberland, who, authorized by Ilcr Majesty's letters patent for raising 
forces to serve in the expedition, soon levied twelve companies of eighty men each; 
and with these and a proportionate number of seamen he sailed from Plymouth 
on March 5th. In the month of May they reached the West Indies. On one of the 
AHrginia Islands, which he found witliout inliabitants, the earl landed his troops 
to examine their condition; and after the review he informed the men of the 
object of the expedition, giving them suitable exhortation before going into action. 
From thence he proceeded direct to Porto Rico and landed about 1,000 soldiers on 
June Gth without meeting with any immediate opposition. The English lost a 
large number of men, however, from the desolating influences of the climate, whilst 
they gained but little advantage; and at the restoration of peace the island was 
restored to its original owners. 

"From that time to the present Porto Rico has belonged to the Spanish; but 
for many years after the departure of the British the colony continued in a very 
languishing state, San Domingo, Mexico, Peru and other places commanding more 
attention. It was not till the Spaniards had lost their hold of some of these val- 
uable possessions that Porto Eieo, in common with Culia, received due consider- 
ation and became a place of refuge and shelter for colonists fleeing from insurrec- 
tion and turmoil. Towards the close of the last century the population of the 
island was considerably increased by the influx of Spanish colonists and the intro- 
duction of thousands of negro slaves brought from the coast of Africa to cultivate 
the rich virgin ground, which was laid out for plantations in various parts of the 
country by the newcomers. In subsequent years the colony progressed rajiidly and 
the imports and exports were greatly increased. 

"The principal articles cultivated for exjiortation are sugar, cotton, coffee and 
tobacco; and an ample supply of Indian corn and various kinds of ground pro- 
visions are grown for home consumption. The soil in the valleys and plains is gen- 
erally very fertile, and it is capable of much improvement by the application of 
modern methods of agricidtiire. The uplands and mountain slopes afford fine pas- 



102 KAJ;LV DHSCRIPTIOXS OF PORTO RICO. 

tiirage for countless numbers of cattle, horses, and mules, which are reared and 
exported in large quantities to the neighboring colonies. The climate, in common 
with that of most of the larger islands of the West Indies, is very unhealthy at 
certain seasons of the year, especially in localities which are low and swanipy: but 
it might be greatly improved by clearing and draining the land in the neighborhood 
of the towns, villages and plantations, wliich are the chief centers of population. 

"San Juan, the capital of tlie colony, has risen to the position of a consid- 
erable city, with a pojnilation of about 30,000. It is situated on the west point 
of an islet joined to the mainland by a Ijridge. It contains six straight streets^ 
running from north to south, crossed by si.x others, which intersect them at right 
angles. The houses of the first class are built of stone and are large and commo- 
dious, but many others are wooden buildings and of a very inferior description, 
whilst the huts of the slaves in the suburbs are miserable hovels. The princiiial 
public buildings are the cathedral and other churches, two convents and a general 
hospital. There are several other small towns and villages in different parts of 
the island, and the negro huts on the respective plantations form small villages, the 
same as in other islands. Xear the village of Caomo, on a considerable river of 
the same name, on the -south coast, there is a warm sulphurous spring whose tem- 
perature is 95 degrees and which is said to be very useful in certain diseases of 
the skin. Other villages and settlements are situated on the banks of the Rio 
Lovisa, a river which is navigiable for small vessels to a considerable distance from 
its mouth. 

"The greatest drawbacks to our j^leasure in contemplating Porto Rico are 
the prevalence of slavery, the low type of Roman Catholicism which pre- 
vails, and the immoral and degraded character of a great part of the popula- 
tion of all classes and conditions. Xor has anything been done by the missionary 
and philanthropic societies of Europe or America to promote the social and moral 
elevation of the people. Indeed, it is generally understood that the intolerance 
of the Romish priesthood will not admit of any form of protestant missionary 
labor. If slavery were abolished and religious liberty allowed, Porto Rico might 
become a fine field for philanthropic and evangelistic effort. Genuine Christians 
of every name will do well to watch and wait and pray for openings for the intro- 
duction of the gospel to this and other countries which are similarly circumstanced,, 
and where the inhabitants are sitting in the regions of the Shadow of Death." 



CHAPTER lY. 

RECENT DESCRIPTIOXS OF THE ISLAXD. 

Interesting Letter from a Scientist and Business Man, Giving an Account of the 
Island's Flora — Valuable Information about the Products and Exports, 
Gathered by C. W. Eves — Scientific American Quoted — Interesting Account 
of the Hurricanes, by Frederick D. Ober — Value of the Island's Imports — 
Establishment of Electric Tramways — Possibilities for Coffee and Sugar 
Production — A Glowing Tribute to the Island, by James Rodway. 

We quote from the familiar publication, "Xature,"' Vol. 29, published by The 
Macmillan Company: 

"Through the courtesy of Sir Joseph Hooker, we are al)le to publish the fol- 
low ing interesting communication from Baron Eggers on the Island of Porto Rico: 

"'St. Thomas, October 22. 1883. 

""Dear Sir Joseph Hooker: — It is a long time since I wrote you last. I have 
meantime, at least, accomplished my long-cherished design, partly at least, of ex- 
ploring the Luguillo mountains in Porto Rico, which island I visited during April 
and Hay this A'ear. I spent about five weeks there, living for some time in the hut 
of a "Xibaro," or native laborer, on the Sierra at an altitude of about 2,200 feet, 
on the edge of the primeval forests that still cover all the higher parts of the 
mountain range. Since my return I have been busy arranging mj" collection, the 
greater part of which appears in the ninth and tenth century of my "Flora India 
Occidentalis Exsieceata." 

" 'As for the general character of the Sierra forests, they of course resemble 
in their main outlines those of the other West India islands. There is, however, 
especially one feature which strikes me as being peculiar to this mountain ridge 
compared with the woods of other islands, for example, of Dominica. Whilst the 
climate is just as moist in the Sierra of Porto Rico as in that of Dominica, the 
forests of Porto Rico seem nearly entirely destitute of etiphytes with the exception 
of some few Bromeliades and a very rarely occurring stray orchid. But orchids in 
general and epiphj-tical ferns, such as Trichomancs and Ilymenophyllum. etc., 
are conspicuous by their absence. Of palms I found but one species, which I have 
distribiited in my "Flora." I believe it a Euterpe, grows gregariously at an altitude 
of 1,500 to 2,000 feet. Xo cycads were to be seen at all. On the other hand, I found 
several interesting trees, especially a beautiful Talama, with immense white odorous 
flowers and silvery leaves which would be very ornamental. The wood is used for 
timber, and called Saljino. A Hirtclla with crimson flowers I also found rather 

103 



?• 



104 KKCEXT DKSCEirTIOXS OF THE ISLAXD. 

common; it is not described in any of Griseljacli's jjublications. An unknown tree 
with beautiful, orange-like foliage, and large, purple flowers, very similar in shape 
to those of Sccevola Phiniieri, split along one side, a tall Lobeliacea, a large Heli- 
conia, nearly allied, it seems, to H. caribbcea. Lam., and several other as yet unde- 
termined trees and shrubs are among the most remarkable things found. 

" 'On the whole, 1 was somewhat disappointed with regard to the result of the 
voyage, as I had expected a greater number of novelties, as well as a richer vegeta- 
tion in general, at least something like the Caribbean islands. But these partly 
negative residts may no doubt be of some value also in forming an idea of the 
West Indian flora in general. Of tree ferns, Cyathea Serra and an Alsophila were 
not uncommon. One of the most conspicuous trees in some parts is the Coccoloba 
macrophylla, which I found on my first visit to Porto Rico. This tree is found 
up to an altitude of 2,000 feet, but chiefly near the coast, where it forms extensive 
woods in some places, which at the time of flowering, with immense, purple spikes 
more than a yard long, are very striking. The tree is named Ortegon by the inhab- 
itants; it does not seem to occur on any of the British Islands, but to be confined 
to Hayti and Porto Bico; at least I do not see it mentioned in Grisebach's *Cat. 
Plant, cubensium." The peojile cultivate sugar-cane in the plains, which arc very 
fertile, yielding three hogsheads on an average per acre without any kind of ma- 
nure. Besides this staple produce, a very good coffee is produced; it does not 
ajipcar that any blight has as yet perceptibly affected the shrubs here. Eice is 
very commonly cultivated on the hills and the Sierra. I suppose it must be a kind 
of mountain variety, as no inundation or other kind of watering is used. Rice is, 
in fact, the staple food of the laborers, together with plantain and yaudia, i. e. C'ala- 
dium esculentum. Immense pastures of Hymenachne striatum (^lalahojilla) oc- 
cupy a part of the lowland, and feed large herds of cattle of an excellent quality. 
St. Thomas and the French Islands all obtain their butcher's meat from Porto 
Rico; I believe even Barbados comes to Porto Rico for cattle. 

" 'The island is very richly endowed by nature, but miserably governed, and 
the people themselves not worth a much better government, being given to gam- 
bling in the extreme throughout, from the rich planter and priest down to the 
lowest laborer and beggar. Yet they are hospitable and very polite to strangers, 
with that remarkable, unchanging, inbred Spanish politeness. 

" 'It may finally interest you to hear, from the fact that you take a prominent 
part in the advancement of the material progress of the English West India islands, 
how we are working in that respect here in St. Thomas. I have on my estate now 
about 1,000 Divi-Divi trees growing and doing well, except for the deer, which do 
much damage. On the coasts I have over 2,000 cocoanut trees planted; cultivation 
of the Sanseviera guineensis is going on for making fibres; a large tract of land 
stocked with ITcrmatoxylon I have now preserved, and try to make it a regular 
forest to be cut down gradually. In company with an engineer here I have now 
ordered a machine from England, Smith's fibre machine, which is being used in 
the ^lauritius, in order to work up our immense qu^uifity of Agave and Fourcroya, 



RECENT I)i;S( KIPTIOXS OF THE ISLAND. 105 

the raw material being close at hand in unlimited quantity near tlie sea. I am also 
going to try o.xjieriments with the manufacture of tannin extracts from bark of 
Coccoloba, Ehizophora, and the pods of the various Acacias, which are a great 
nuisance here on account of their rapid growth. The Aloe sempervirens will also 
be made useful in a similar manner as in Barbados and Ciiracoa, it growing here 
spontaneously on barren rocks. H. EGGERS.' " 

"The West Indies," of C. Washington Eves, published by Sampson Low, Mars- 
ton, Searle & Rivington, London, says of Porto Rico: 

"It is very hot, but relieved by a breeze during the day. Hurricanes have 
visited the island. It is extremely fertile, possessing woods, hills, valleys and 
meadows. It is known for its herds of wild cattle. Through the middle of the 
island from east to west there runs a chain of mountains, from which rivers and 
streams descend to water the plains below. The hills are generally covered with 
trees. Sugar, ginger, cotton, flax, coffee, cassia, incense and hides were among 
its early productions. Mules were also exported. It produced also rice, maize, plan- 
tains, pines, oranges, citrons, lemons, calabashes, potatoes, melons and fine salt. 
At first the Spaniards made little use of it except as a port of call. The capital of 
Porto Rico has the dedicatory title of San Juan. It is situated on a small island on 
the north side, united by means of a causeway to the main island. The port is large, 
convenient and safe. The city was founded by Juan Ponce de Leon in 1510. Sir 
Francis Drake once burnt all the vessels in the port. In 1598 the English obtained 
the mastery over the island, and then abandoned it with much spoil. In 1615 
there was an attack by the Dutch, and another attempt was made in 1742 by the 
English, but these attempts led to no practical results for the invaders. 

"In 1886 the export trade of Porto Rico was in a very unsatisfactory condition. 
There was a falling off, owing to bad seasons, of more than 25 per cent. The 
sugar exported .was 65,189 ton.s, or 25 per cent less tlian in 1885, when 63,489 
tons were exported to the United States and 17,379 tons to Great Britain and 
British provinces, a further 8,000 tons going to other countries. The total produc- 
tion of sugar has sometimes reached a hundred thousand tons. In 1887 it was 
80,793 tons. The coffee export had also declined. A considerable trade is still 
done in the export of cattle. The imports amount to £2,000,000 in round numbers, 
and the exports to about the ."anie, a very considerable proportion of the imports 
consisting of British goods. Cottons, woolens, jute for sugar and coffee bags, 
metals and rice, are the main items of the British trade. The British colonies 
suii])ly the codfish, the value of which is estimated at £95,000. Flour is imported 
from the United States and Spain, estimated in value between £200.000 and £300,- 



106 RECENT DESCRIPTIOXS OF TIIK ISLAND. 

000. Other j)rovisions are also sent Ijy the United States and Spain to a consider- 
able anioimt. Coal is almost exclusively supplied by Creal liritain. A large 
amount of English and Spanish capital is invested in business, collecting and work- 
ing up the produce ol' a number of cane plantations. The population is 784,700. 
Slavery was abolished in 1873." 

In the opinion of Rojas (Scientific American — "Porto Rico: Its Natural His- 
tory and Products'") the island is outside of the seismic currents which extend under 
the ocean from the Old World to the new, and consequently it alone of the Antilles 
group has thus far been free from the great seismic movements which have ruined 
many American towns. Nevertheless, and doubtless on account of the proximity 
of the volcanic origin of the islands of San Vicente, Santa Lucia, and Guadalupe 
slight earthquakes are apt to be felt, and on two occasions they were worthy of 
being called severe, these at the end of April, 178G, and in 1843, when the city 
of ilartinique was ruined. Slight quakes were also felt in 1867 and in March of 
the following year. In the beginning of 1882 it was noticed that the waters of the 
bays of JIayagiiez and Ponce retreated two or three times to a level of more than 
thirty feet below the ordinary water line of the coasts, and this phenomenon coin- 
cided with earthquakes at Colon and Panama. 

The commonest minerals are gold, copper, carbonate and sulphate and mag- 
netic iron, which are found in great masses in the neighborhood of Juncos; galena 
is also found, as well as traces of mercury, manganese, bismuth, and some other 
minerals. The fuels are represented by the lignites of I'tuado and Moca, although 
they occur in thin layers and are generally charged with pyrites; at the latter place 
amber is also found. There is an abundance of varieties of marble and compact 
limestone, and in general materials for construction and ornamentation. In the 
Historical American Exposition at Madrid, in 1892, were exhibited remarkable ex- 
amples of magnetic iron, oxide of iron, and carbonate of copper, all from Juncos; 
also ferruginous white quartz from the auriferous zone of Sierra Luquillo, and 
calcareous spar, ])earl spar, fibrous gyjjsum, malariiite. and pure blue co])i)er from 
Naguabo. 

Native gold is found principally in the alluvial deposits and in the rivers in 
the vicinity of Luquillo. When auriferous sand is washed, it is found that in some 
places there is a deposit of magnetic iron with the grains of gold. 

There are natural salt mar.«hes at (Juanica and Salinas on the south and at 
Cape Rojo on the west. Hot springs are found at J nana Diaz. San Sebastian, San 
Lorenzo, and Ponce, but the most famous are the baths at Caomo on the south and 
near the citv of Santa Isabel. 



RECENT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE LSLAXI*. lOT 

Observations carried on for years show that 81° i> the average temperatnre. 
From 1878 to 1880 tlie thermometer in the shade ranged from 02-96° to 7--'-8° F. 
The monthly average varied from 72-32° to 86.07° F., the former being fur the 
month of February, 1880, and the second for June, 1878. The mean height of the 
barometrical column was aljout 30 inches. 

The "mountain dog,"' a reversion of the domestic species that haunts the more 
inaccessible forests and is dangerous only to calves, poultry and young swine, is the 
only creature that can be termed "wild." Rats exist in abundance, but have a bitter 
foe in the otherwise harmless "hunter snake," a species of boa that grows from 
six to nine feet in length. Ants and beetles are numerous, and one of the latter, 
known as tlie "comegen," bores into wooden structures, and is sometimes danger- 
ous to buildings. Bees are comparatively plentiful in the forests, but are smaller 
than the domestic forms, and produce an amber colored honey, very rich, but that 
speedily ferments and sours, and the wax is of a violet hue. "Lucernas" or fire- 
flies abound: they are like small l)utterflies with phosphorescent rings about the 
eyes, and when masses fly at night they ])roduce sufficient light to illuminate the 
fields and plantations. There are also "cucuyos" similar to the cricket, which are 
])hosphorescent under tlie wings. Some of the bats seek sleeping animals at night 
to suck their blood. The chigoe bites through the shoes and stockings, or enters 
bet«oi_n the nail and the skin; and copper worms, ticks, cockroaches, mosquitoes, 
fhinches, etc., are most vexatious. 

Plans have been made for five first class roads, viz.: from the capital to Ponce 
by Caguas and Coamo, a distance of 84 miles; from the capital (the suburb Catano) 
to JIayaguez by Arecibo and Aguadilla, 101 miles; Mayaguez to Ponce, 00 miles; 
from the first named road to Arroyo by Guayama, 21 miles; Cagual to the city of 
Baguabo by Ilumaco, 30 miles; making a total of 280 miles. A few miles of in- 
ferior roads have been constructed, viz.: from Arecibo to Ponce by Uruado and 
Adjiuitas, 2-1 miles; Rio Piedras to the Port of Fajardo, 31 miles; from Lares to 
Aguadilla, 16 miles; a liranch connecting the two first named roads through Guay- 
nabo, 8 miles; making a total of 89 miles. The general plan of railroads consists of 
a line around the island divided into four sections: one from San Juan to Maya- 
guez by Arecibo and Aguadilla; from Rio Piedras or Humacao by Fajardo; from 
Ponce to Mayaguez by San German; from Ponce to Humacao by Arroyo, a total 
of 341 miles, of which, however, only 17 miles have been built. There are tram- 
ways from the capital to Rio Piedras, 7^ miles, from Ponce to the shore, from 
Mayaguez to the shore and from Catano to Bayamon, 5 miles. 

The telegraph system is divided into the Western Line, from the capital to 



108 EECEXT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 

Eio Piedras, Bayamo, Dorado, A'ega Baja, Manati, Arecibo, Aguadilla, Anasco, 
Mauaguez, Hormacao, Yabucoa, Maunabo, Patillas, Arryo, Guayama, Salinas, and 
Ponce. The Central Line e.xtends from the capital to Cayey, Aibonita, Caoma, 
Juan Diaz, Ponce and its bay, and the eastern branch from the capital to Carolina, 
Luquillo, Fajardo, Xaguado, and ITiimasao. This system has also been extended 
from Arecibo to Ponce, with stations at Adjuntas and I'tuado. Tlie total kaigth 
of the lines anionnts to 486 miles and that of the wires to 676 miles, and 152,786 
disi>atches were sent in 1892. There are cables from the capital to St. Thomas, 
in communication with the Lesser Antilles and South America; from the capital 
to Jamaica, in communication with Cul)a, the United States and Europe; and from 
the bay of Ponce to Jamaica and Santa Cruz, connecteTl with St. Thomas. 

"Puerto Kico and Its Resources," by Frederick D. Ober (D. Appleton & Co., 
publishers), is a work full of instruction as to the island that is suddenly one of 
our new possessions. We find here accounts full and particular of the mountains 
and the hurricnnes. two of the features of Porto Rico: 

"In the moxmtains the inhabitants enjoy the coolness of spring, while the 
valleys would be uninhabitable were it not for the daily breeze which blows gen- 
erally from the northeast and east. For example, in Ponce the noonday sun is 
felt in all its rigor, while at tJie village of Adjuntas, four leagues distant in the 
interior of the mountains, the traveller feels invigorated by the refreshing breezes 
and temperate climate. At one place the thermometer is as high as 90°, while in 
another it is sometimes under ()0°. Although the seasons are not so distinctly 
marked in this climate as they are in Europe (the trees being always green), yet 
there is a distinction to be made between them. The division into wet and dry sea- 
sons (winter and summer) does not give a proper idea of the seasons in this island; 
for on the north coast it sometimes rains almost the whole year, while sometimes 
for twelve or fourteen months not a drop of rain falls on the south coast. How- 
ever, in the mountains at the south there are daily showers. 

"As in all tropical countries, the year is divided into two seasons — the dry 
and the rainy. In general, the rainy season commences in August and ends the last 
of December, southerly and westerly winds ]irevailing during this period. The 
rainfall is excessive, often inundating fields and funning extensive lagoons. The 
exhalations from these lagoons give rise to a number of diseases, but, nevertheless, 
Porto Rico is one of the healthiest islands in the archipelago. 

"The hurricanes which visit the island, and which obey the general laws of 
tropical cyclones, are the worst scourges of the country. For hours before the ap- 
pearance of tills torrilile jihenoiiu'iion tlie sea a])])ears calm: the waves come from 



RECENT DESCEIPTIOXS OF THE ISLAND. 109 

a loug distance very gently until near the shore, when they suddenly rise as if im- 
pelled by a superior force, dashing against the land with extraordinary violence and 
fearfid noise. Together with this sign, the air is noticed to be disturbed, the sun 
red and the stars obscured Ijy a vapor, which seems to magnify them. A strong 
odor is perceived in the sea, which is sulphurous in the waters of rivers, and there 
are sudden changes in the wind. These omens, together with the signs of uneasi- 
ness manifested by various animals, foretell the proximity of a hurricane. 

"This is a sort of whirlwind, accompanied by rain, thunder and lightnings 
sometimes by earthquake shocks, and always by the most terrible and devastating 
circumstances that can possibly combine to ruin a country in a few hours. A 
clear, serene day is followed by the darkest night; the delightful view offered by 
woods and prairies is diverted into the dreary waste of a cruel winter; the tallest 
and most robust cedar trees are uprooted, broken off bodily, and hurled into a heap; 
roofs, balconies, and windows of houses are carried through the air like dry leaves, 
and in all directions are seen houses and estates laid waste and thrown into con- 
fusion. 

"The fierce roar of the water and of the trees being destroyed by the winds, 
the cries and moans of people, the bellowing of cattle and neighing of horses, which 
are being carried from place to place by the whirlwinds, the torrents of water inun- 
dating tlie fields, and a deluge of fire being let loose in flashes and streaks of light- 
ning, seem to announce the last convulsions of the universe and the death agonies 
of nature itself. 

■'Sometimes these hurricanes are felt only on the north coast, at others on the 
south, although generally their influence extends throughout the island. 

"Earthquakes are somewhat frequent, but not violent or of great consequence. 
The natives foretell them by noticing clouds settle near the ground for some time 
in the open places among the mountains. The water of the springs emits a sul- 
phurous odor or leaves a strange taste in the mouth; birds gather in large flocks 
and fly about, uttering shriller cries than usual; cattle bellow and horses neigh, 
etc. A few hours beforehand the air becomes calm and dimmed by vapors which 
arise from the ground, and a few moments before there is a slight breeze, followed 
at intervals of two or three minutes by a deep rumbling noise, accompanied by sud- 
den gusts of wind, which are the forerunners of the vibration, the latter following 
immediately. These shocks are sometimes violent, and are usually repeated, but, 
owing to the special construction of the houses, they cause no damage. 

"The West Indians guard as much as possible from the hurricanes by building 
their houses of stone, in the main, v.-ith massive walls, and providing strong bars 



no RECENT DESCKIPTIOXS OF THE ISLAND. 

for doors and windows. When the barometer gives notice of the approach of a 
storm these bars are brought out and everything is at once made fast. Doors and 
window shutters are closed, barred and double-locked, and the town looks as if it 
were deserted by all human beings. The state of suspense, while the hurricane 
rages, is simply awful, for no one know.-; wjicn the house may fall and bury all be- 
neath its ruins. Add to this the howling of the blast, the crash of falling trees, the 
piercing cries for help from wouudcd and dying, and one may faintly picture the 
terrible scene. To venture out is almost certain death, the air is so filled with Hy- 
ing missiles, such as boards, branches of trees, tiles, bricks and stones. 

'"One of the most destructive hurricanes occurred so recently as 18'Jl, wiien 
the island of Martinique was ]irostrated by a terrible tornado, from the effects of 
which it may never recover. 

" 'Early on the morning of the 18th of August,' says the United States Consul 
in his report, 'the sky presented a leaden appearance, decidedly threatening, with 
occasional gusts of variable winds, mostly from east-northeast. The temperature 
was very oppressive during the day. The barometer varied only slightly, when it 
commenced to tall, at first gradually, then very rapidly. It is stated by fishermen 
who were in the vicinity of Carvael Rock (in the sea channel) tliat an immense 
wave, aljout a hundred feet high, passed from the direction of St. Lucia, closely fol- 
lowed bv another smaller one, although the sea in the vicinity was quite calm at 
the time. The storm struck the east side of the island at about p. m., rushing 
through the ravines and destroying everything in its path. On tlie elevated plains 
the ruin was complete. One very peculiar feature of tlic luirricane was the deafness 
experienced by everyone during the storm — possibly the result of the reduced 
barometic pressure. During the cyclone the wind veered from east-northeast to 
south-southeast, from the latter point being the most destructive; there were in- 
cessant flashes of sheet lightning unaccompanied by thuiulcr. and immediately 
after the storm two distinct shocks of earthquake at intervals of about five seconds. 

" 'Early in the September following I visited La Trinite and noted that all the 
way the destruction was most comiiletc, the trees and all vegetation looking as 
though there had been a forest fire, although witliout the charred appearance. The 
sugar-cane suffered least, and tlie loss, with favorable weather, did not amount to 
more than one-fifth its normal value. The factories and distilleries seem to have 
been more completely destroyed than any other property. The thermometer ranged 
from 90° to 100° during the storm, and there was a deluge of rain, one account 
stating that over four inches fell in a few hours (liat evening. 

'"Jlv own residence was unroofed and flr.oded with water, as was the case of 



EECENT DESCRirTIOXS OF THE ISLAM). Ill 

nine-tenths of tlio buildings in St. Pierre, and ihrouglioiit the island. The loss 
of life was comparatively small in the cajjital, but larger in the interior towns, 
notably in Morue Rogue (a mountain resort above St. Pierre), where eight in one 
family lost their lives. The total loss of life, so far as reliable information can be 
obtained, was seven hundred, and the loss of property was enormous. All the 
fruit, the main reliance of the laboring classes, was destroyed, and prices of pro- 
visions at once advanced three hundred per cent. Every vessel along the coast was 
either wrecked or Ijadly damaged, about fifty sail in all. The scene the island pre- 
sents would be difficult to describe, aud the inhabitants are sorely stricken and 
demoralized. Such a night of terror the imagination can scarcely picture.' '' 

MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AT SAN JUAN DE PORTO RICO DUR- 
ING FIVE YEARS' OBSERVATION. 

Hours of the day. '^aja • toSsSs 

Seven in the morning 72 72^4 74 78 78 82 85 86 80% 77 75 75 

Noon 82 81 82 83 85 86 90 92 88 " 85 84 80 

Five in the evening 78 74 78 80 81 84 87 90 S3 82 80 79 

Two of the places in Porto Rico made conspicuous in the campaign of Gen- 
eral ililos are Yauco and Guanica. Albert Gardner Robinson writes of a street 
scene in Yauco: 

''My attention was attracted by repeated shouts from the streets. Upon going 
to investigate the occasion of the disturbance, I found that it was caused Iiy a 
semi-intoxicated jackey from one of the monitors lying in Guanica Bay. Jackey 
was celebrating a day of shore-leave by experimenting with the sailing qualities 
of a Porto Rican pony. lie was cruising uj) aud down the }irincipal street at a six- 
knot gait, and shouting at the top of his voice, 'Viva Porto Eical' This was an- 
swered by the vigorous yells of some two hundred natives who were assembled, 
'Viva los Americanos!' 'Viva Puerto Rico Americano!' There was no question of 
their sincerity. Xo man would yell as they did without meaning it. Jackey would 
howl his 'Viva Porto Rico!" and the crowd would come back at him with its vocifer- 
ous response. All hands were having a good time. A little squad of the provost 
guard marched up to see what was going on. It grinned and marched back again. 

"The road from Yauco to Guanica takes one immediately past the scene of the 
first 'battle" on Porto Rican soil. The Spanish army, consisting of a small company 
of soldiers, occujiied the siiacious yard which surrcumds the large house and exten- 



112 RECENT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 

sivc out-buildings of M. Mariani, a Froiu-li sugar-planter of great wealth and of long 
residence on the island. A high brick wall along the southern side of the yard 
formed the Spanish defense, from which point of vantage they e.xchanged a few 
leaden eoniplinients with the American soldiery of General Henry's command, 
wbich was posted on the hill beyond. After a few hours of no very energetic war- 
fare, during which a small casualty li.<t was made upon both sides, the Sjianiards 
withdrew to make room for a deputation of the prominent citizens of Yauco, who 
extended a warm hand of welcome to the invaders." 

Mr. Robinson writes of Guaniea, where General Allies made his first landing: 

"This is a i)retty little harbor with a narrow entrance Hanked by high hills 
which descend sharjily to the water's edge. It presents possibilities as a sea-side 
resort. Its surroundings are charming. A pleasant and refreshing breeze blows 
from the water. Pleasant drives could easily be laid out, which would take one 
either anumg the mountains or along the coast. There is still-water bathing inside 
the headlands and surf-bathing beyond them. There is said to be duck-shooting 
on a near-by lake, and there is dove-shooting in the forest for those who like ])ot 
hunting. 

"Yauco is the juincijial place and is quite a little city. (Juanica is a straggling 
village on the coast, some six miles to the southward of Yauco, for which place 
it serves as a port and as a summer resort for the well-to-do citizens of its larger 
neighbor. Yauco is the present terminus of the Ponce and Yauco division of the 
Com])ania de los Eerrocarriles de Puerto Rico. The drainage of Yauco is admir- 
able. The town stands on a hill-side which is about as steep as the roof of a house. 
The business portion of the town, and its better buildings, are upon the lower 
slopes, while cottages and cabins straggle away to the higher and steejier regions. 
Tlu^ town has a considerable French population, though I am told that the majority 
are f'orsicans, rather than French. 

"The ])lace is the commercial center of a consideralile district of productive 
back country, and one of the outlets through its port city of (iuanica for the coffee 
district. 

"American trade with Porto Rico in the forties was quite extensive, and not- 
withstanding S^wnish laws that [lut American mercbants at a dt'cided disadvanfagc 
the American commerce with the land rivalled that with the mother country, Spain. 
The following tables for the year 18-12 are valuable as suggestive of what the fig- 
ures will be in American Porto Rico. The total importations for .that year 
amounted to $5,707, 103.84. 



KECKXT 1)1 S( IMI'TIOXS OF THE ISLAND. 11:5 

"Of which were imported in Spanish bottoms $3,410,577.57 

In American bottom.s 1, 45(5, 998. 05 

In French bottoms 151,371.13 

In English bottoms 139,502.57 

In all other foreign bottoms 598,954.53 

$5,757,403.84 

'"That the total exportations for that year amounted to $6,429,257.35 

Of which were exported in Spanish bottoms 1,503,109.19 

In American bottoms 2,453,299.32 

In French bottoms 911,138.31 

In English bottoms : 554,126.88 

In all other foreign bottoms 947,583.65 

$6,429,257.35 

''That the number of vessels 'arriving' and "departing" are: 

Arrivals. Departures. 

Spanish vessels 594 509 

American vessels 438 399 

French vessels 143 137 

English vessels 88 91 

All other foreign vessels 85 81 

1,348 1,217 

"That the commercial revenue is this: 

Amount duties collected on imports $1,026,266.95 

Amount duties collected on exports 313,301.25 

Amount duties collected on tonnage and anchorage dues 98,882.98 

$1,438,351.18 • 

"The value of merchandise imported and exported by Porto Rico during each 
calendar year from 1887 to 1890 inclusive showed an annual average for the years 
1887 to 1891 of an excess in imports of. $6,734,508, and the annual average from 
1892 to 1896 showed an excess of $1,090,453." 

The Engineering Magazine, January, 1899, editorially says: 

"The world will probably see, in Porto Eico, the opening of a new territory 

that is old, and the most perfected resources of engineering applied to j)ioneering 

work. The seizure of the island by the United States during the recent war with 

Spain will result in the exploitation of one of the 'richest regions in the world, and 



114 EECENT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 

it is altogether likely that it will be done in a most original ami characteristic 
fashion. 

"The island is almost rectangular in shape, 95 miles long and 35 miles wide. 
There is the usual strip of flat coast lands extending throughout the circumfer- 
ence, while the interior is a mountainous plateau having elevations of about 3,800 
feet above the sea level. Almost the whole area is under cultivation, sugar-cane 
and tobacco growing lu.xuriantly on the lowlands. C'ofi;'ee and tobacco, as well as 
many fruits and vegetables, are cultivated on the central plateau. There is one 
road, the magnificent Spanish military road across the island from San Juan on the 
north to Ponce on the south coast, and in all about 35 miles of railway in three 
disconnected sections. The population is about one million, and there are several 
large and well built towns, those in the interior being generally at elevations of 
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the sea. The climate is genial, and there is no yellow 
fever, the interior being reported as extremely salubrious. In many ways the island 
bears a strong resemblance to Ceylon. 

"While there is already much wealth in Porto Rico, two causes jiave contrib- 
uted to hamper the development of its very great resources — the total absence of 
means of transportation, and the almost incredible dishonesty of the Spanish reg- 
ime, now happily superseded. In addition to these considerable obstacles there has 
long existed an organized system of brigandage, taking toll of all merchandise 
going to or out of the interior. The percentage required by these highwaymen is 
reported at from 10 to 50 per cent. 

"On the few miles of railroad the charges have been most exorbitant. Be- 
tween Yauco and Ponce, a distance of IS miles, the passenger rate was $1.00 and 
the freight rate $20 per ton. Even under these conditions the island has flourished 
because of its surpassing fertility. Its mineral resources are almost absolutely unde- 
veloped and for the most part unknown. 

"There is an abundance of water power, no less than 1.200 small streams and 
twenty-one large rivers flowing into the sea along the coast. The flow- is not inter- 
mittent, for even in the dry season these streams are full. In the rainy season many 
of them are raging torrents. 

"Almost the first proposition, that has been made public for the complete 
exploitation of Porto Rico, is the construction of electric tramw-ays through the 
interioj. It has not been proposed to build roads, for it is now well recognized that 
the most costly of ordinary means of transportation is that of vehicles drawn by 
animals over ordinary roads — especially in a hilly region. This project seems so 
eminently sensible, especially in view of the large undeveloped water powers of the 



iJECKNT D^:scKlrTIO^■s of the islaxjx ii--. 

island, and the fact that its \vhole area is so small that electric power transmission 
from any part of it to any other is feasible, that it ought to be put into execution 
at the earliest possible moment. With the immunity from the exaction of brigands, 
swift and inexpensive transportation from the interior to the coast, and rehef from 
the various forms of legalized robbery that have existed, there is no reason why 
Porto Eico should not soon be one of the richest islands in the world. 

''The spectacle of electric tramways building in advance of ordinary roads is 
one that would have been even more startling five years ago than it is now; but 
even to-day it is an indication of the wonderful progress that has been made in 
the utilization of electricity and the readiness with which this agency lends itself 
to varied and useful purposes." 

We (luote the Engineering Magazine on '"The Exploitation of Electric Tram- 
ways in Porto Eico," l)y Antonio Mattel Lluveras: - 

"The establishment of electric tramways throughout the island of Porto Rico, 
from east to west along the central range of mountains, would be desirable, easy, 
and reratively inexpensive. An electric line, starting from Naguabo at Humaco at 
the east end, touching the interior towns of Juncos, Barros, Jayuya, Utuado, Ad- 
juntas, and Matiao, and terminating at Mayaguez, with branches from the main 
line to the villages at the coast, would serve, better than any other system, to move 
the rich products of those districts and to accommodate the greater number of pas- 
sengers who now have no means of convenient travel. 

"The coal problem, and many other expensive items of railroad building, would 
not be a consideration in the operation and construction of such a tramway system, 
as there exists throughout the whole mountain range natural water powers available 
for any class of machinery. The many and powerful waterfalls having their sources 
in the mountainous inland region, and the rivers which run through this territory 
in various directions, seem to have been created by nature especially to aid man 
in the cultivation of the rich soil and the marketing of its i^roducts, which, because 
of the high altitudes and necessarily heavy grades of high-roads, if these should be 
l)uilt, would otherwise be very costly. The interiom- of the island is extremely moun- 
tainous. Around the entire extent of its coast, however, is a flat belt of rich low- 
land, suitable for the cultivation of sugar and tobacco. The highest \nllage in 
Porto Eico, Aybonito, situated at an altitude of 2,300 feet above the sea level, is 
on the line of the central highway, which runs from Ponce to San Juan. This fine 
highway, l)uilt originally by the Sjianish Government for military purpo,?es, has no 



IIP EECEXT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 

grade greater than 14 per cent., which would be the maximum also to be met with 
in the construction of the tramway ah)ng the mountain range. 

"Official statistics for the calendar year, 18!)T, which was certainly one of the 
least productive of the last decade, show that the exports of the island were as 

follows: 

Cwt. Value 

Cane sugar 125,323,581) $ 4,007,999 

Molasses -35,085,069 403,519 

Coffee 51,097,823 12,222,598 

Tobacco 6,181,771 1,194,318 

Hides 822,108 71^852 

"There was produced, of course, a considerably greater quantity of each of 
these products, the difference going to the home consumption of nearly a million 
inhabitants. The total exports for 1897 are given in the Spanish 'Estadistica Gen- 
eral' as $18,574,678.45. Besides, there is a large production of minor fruits which 
do not figure in exports, although they are of considerable importance in interior 
transportation. If these fruits could be quickly and cheaply moved to the coast 
for shipment to American markets there is no doubt that a large and profitable 
trade in them could be quickly established. 

"The territory which produces the most coffee is in the high and mountainous 
parts of the island, along the central range, and here it is that the greatest need 
is felt for transportation facilities, the only existing means of communication being 
by horse-roads or mule-jiaths built by the residents. From the plantations where 
the coffee is gathered to the nearest towns on the coasts, whence the berries may 
be carried in ox-carts to the markets, carriage is effected at the present time on the 
backs of horses and mules, which can take only 200 pounds a trip. These same 
horses bring back an equal quantity of provisions and merchandise for the sub- 
sistence and necessities of the laborers and other inhabitants of the interior. For 
this transportation on horses and mules one dollar a luindred pounds each way is 
paid from the points most distant, and fifty cents from the nearer points. Among 
these rich coffee plantations are some of considerable importance, such as the Es- 
peranza of Pietri Brothers in the jurisdiction of Adjuntas, near the Guilarte range, 
which produces 3,000 to 4,000 cwt. This plantation employs a daily personnel of 
350 laborers, and jiays $1.00 per hundred jtounds for transportation to the town of 
Yauco. In the jurisdiction of Yauco the plantation Candelaria of Pedro Olivari 
produces 2,000 cwt., and pays a dollar per cwt. for transportation. The plantation 
Mogotes, the property of Messrs. Pieraldi, also produces 2,000 cwt. of coffee of the 
very best quality, and pays 50 cents per cwt. for transportation. The plantation 




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KECENT DESCKIPTIOxXS OF Till!: ISLAND. 119 

Tres Hermanos of P. Cardie gathers and sends out :i,500 cwt., at au expense of 75 
cents for transportation. The Santa Clara plantation of Mariani"s Sons gathers 
7,000 cwt., employing a thousand men daily during the gathering of the fruit, and 
pays from $1.00 to $1.50 for transportation. The plantation of Sr. Viella, in the 
Jurisdiction of Lares, gathers some 4,000 cwt., paying $2.00 per cwt. for its trans- 
portation to Mahayiiez. There are at least tliree hundred plantations along the 
same range, side by side, in the short distance between Marico, Yauco and Ad- 
juntas." 

McClure's Magazine, on the commercial promise of Porto Eico, Cuba and the 
Philippines, refers to the enormous consumption of sugar by the Americans and 
estimates the sugar product of Cuba under American auspices would be 1,500,000 
tons per annum. The writer, Mr. Geo. B. Waldean, adds: 

"Cuba, in the height of her former prosperity, had but a fraction of the sugar 
land under cultivation. Were all the land in use on that island that is suited to 
raising sugar, it is estimated that Cuba alone could supply the demand of the entire 
w-estern licmisphere. Add to this the possiljilities in the other islands now only at 
the beginning of their development, and no American need fear a lack of sugar to 
supply his sweet tooth. 

"With sugar Americans rank their coffee. The annual consumption of this 
berry reaches 700,000,000 pounds. Yet, until Hawaii became ours, not a pound 
could be grown for commerce within our borders. Of the coffee imported scarcely 
a half million pounds comes from these islands east and west. Still the coffee 
product of Porto Eico reaches 5,000,000 pounds a year. Once Cuba far outstripped 
her sister islands in this group, raising in a single year 90,000,000 pounds. But that 
was early in the century, before the island had been devastated by frequent wars. 

"The Philippines produce a coffee not equal to the best Mocha to be sure, but 
with a flavor peculiarly its own, and so well appreciated by the Spaniards that most 
of the 600.000 pounds annually raised go to that country. The Hawaiian islands 
are but at the beginning of their coffee raising. Within five years their exports have 
increased nearly forty fold. It may be many years before these island groups will 
be able to produce coffee enough for the entire nation, but in five years they will be 
sending us a quarter of our imports of this favorite berry, and in a decade that 
total ran easily I;e doubled." 

A charming descriptive account of the West Indies is found in ]\Ir. James Bod- 
way's work, published by G. P. Putnam & Sons, and we quote a vivid picture and 
a condensed volume of history in a few paragraphs: 



120 EECENT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 

"When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of 
that other 'Great Sea' which was such a mighty factor in the development of 
Greece and Rome, Phenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulyssys and 
.^neas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed along the 
coasts of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico in the fear of anthropophagoi, ama- 
zons, giants and fiery dragons. As the Indies were the scene of struggles between 
great nations and the raids of buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battle- 
field for Christian and Turk and a center for' piracy. 

"The seaports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion and wealth 
that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island and river until 
the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their sufferings were terrible. Hurri- 
canes sunk their frail craft on the sea, and earthquakes wrung their very souls on 
land. Starvation, with its consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after 
another, but they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru 
led them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on the 
mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. T'ndaunted by suffering and fail- 
ure they would often try again and again, perhaps only to perish in the attempt 
at last. 

"The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe. With 
her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down before her, 
and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the world. No matter how it 
was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her cofEers. "What did she care that it 
was obtained by the bloody sweat of the poor Indians? Then came envy and 
jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New World? England, Hol- 
land and France began to dispute her supremacy and determined to get a share of 
the good things. The 'invincible domination' of Spain led her to declare war 
against England, with the result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to 
worry the fat galleons at sea and to pillage the treasure depots on the main. 

"And here we must mention that there were two important places in the Indies 
where Spain was most vulnerable — the ]\Iniia Passage between Hispaniola and 
Porto Rico and the isthmus of Darien. Through the first came the outward fleets 
with supplies, and on their return with gold and silver, while on the Isthmus was 
the depot for merchandise and the great treasure-store. At these two points the 
enemy congregated, either as ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in 
their neighborhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no 
])cace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the peace in Europe. English- 
men's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are afraid it was not 



RECENT DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ISLAND. 121 

love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre the Spaniards whenever they 
got an opportunity. The poor Indian received but a scant measure of justice from 
these very people, when, as a matter of convenience, they required possession of 
the Caribbee Islands. 

"Other nations took possession of smaller islands unoccupied by Spain, and 
from these centers continued their raids, as privateers in war, and as pirates at 
other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves against the common 
enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and Holland against England, 
England and Holland againi?t France — nothing but quarrels and fighting. Now an 
island changed hands, and again it was restored, or recaptured. The planters were 
never sure of being able to reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend 
the estate work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white 
slaves cultivated the soil. 

"Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime 
nations, England, France and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the striiggle 
lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three disputants for her 
place were equally matched; then Holland dropped behind, leaving England and 
France to fight it out. The struggle was a very close one, which only ended with 
the fall of Napoleon, and it was in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to 
France took place. Here Rodney defeated Degrasse, and here Nelson and many 
another naval officer gained that experience v.hich served them so well in other 
parts of the world. Here, also, was the scene of that great labor experiment, the 
African slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of 
the Greater Antilles and led to the importation of negroes. "Wliatever may be said 
against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the African has been im- 
proved by his removal to another part of the world to the extent that was expected 
by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for his enfranchisement; 
still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress. 

"The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the nucleus 
of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have been more and more 
abandoned to the negroes and colored people, with the result that although the gov- 
ernment is mostly in the hands of the whites, they are in such a minority as to be 
almost lost. In Cuba there appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their 
own island that probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in 
the i::lands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and colored people. 

"On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the 
large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting process in course 



122 EECENT DESCKIPTIOAS 01" THE ISLAND. 

of accomplishment — the development of one or more nations. Here are the true 
Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the Frank and the Briton in the Saxon, 
so the Spaniard has been, or will be ultimately, lost in the American. At the 
present the so-called Spanish republics are in their birth-throes — they are feeling 
their way. Through trouble and difficulty — revolution and tyranny — they have 
to march on, until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among 
nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it will be a most inter- 
esting study for those who see the result. 

"In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development — an alien 
race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the Africans of Hayti 
are struggling to gain a position among other nations, apparently without any good 
result. The nation is not yet born and its birth-throes are distressing. We look on 
that beautiful island and feel sorry that such a paradise should have fallen so low. 
As a race the negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress — he 
must be com})elled to move on. Some are inclined to believe that he is in j^rocess 
of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe him to be pro- 
gressing slowly. 

"In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the dominating 
power is visible in the negro, though he has no trace of white blood. The French, 
Engli.?h or Dutch negro may be recognized by his manners and even by his features. 
In some places East Indians and Chinese have been imported, but these stand 
alone and make little progress. They are aliens yet, and take little part in the 
development of the colonies. 

"Latterly the West Indians have sunk into neglect by Europe. E.xcept for the 
difficulties of the planters their history is a blank sheet. Few know anything about 
the beautiful islands or the grand forests of the mainland." 

It is of the common information of the transition ])eriod following the Spanish- 
American war and its i-evolutionary consequences that General Ma.ximo Gomez, 
the commander-in-chief of the Cuban forces, long cherished a dream that he is to be 
the founder of a confederacy of the Antilles, and that his use for the independence 
of Cul)a is to forward his ambition to unite and rule the West Indies. But it is 
only a dream within a dream. The political power of the Great Republic of the 
Xorth will attract, command and absorb the tropical islands adjacent to our south- 
ern shores. 



o 



BOOK II 



CUBA. 



INTRODUCTION. 



It is well that Cuba holds the name the jooor savages gave the island before 
Columbus saw the mountains that reminded him of Sicily, and the rivers over- 
hung with trees from which trailed vines gorgeous with flowers, while the water 
was full of glistening fishes, sjjarkling with shifting colors, and the air radiant 
with birds of exquisite plumage, so musical that it seemed, as they gave concerts 
in the blooming groves, the angels were singing, and one could but wish, as the 
discoverer wrote to the Queen of Spain, the songs to last forever. All Americans 
should be glad and jiroud that this island of surpassing endowment is at last 
free, and hope that in the centuries to come there will be erased the stains of 
bloody crime and tearful sorrows that have pervaded the atmosphere and all the 
stories of this country of beauty and fragrance, of fertility and every charm of 
nature, yet a land bereft of happiness because authority has been identical with 
injustice and oppression. The mountains with their forests, the bright rivers and 
broad valleys uplifted in creation's morning, arose from seas of crystal so translu- 
cent that sailors looking over the sides of ships selected smooth sand upon which 
to drop the anchors, avoiding the coral rocks that would have been perilous if 
liiddcn. The woods and the waters were full of food fruits and fishes — there 
were many varieties of oranges, nutritious roots and nuts, and the wilderness 
was as a wonderful and boundless orchard, in which the royal palms shed their 
stately leaves for the habitations of the amiable tribes, that as children in an 
Eden of thdr own, needing no raiment, gathering food from the trees and the soil, 
were unconscious that the world was not all their garden of bliss, until the 
•destroying strangers came. The kindly race whose simple wants were satisfied 
without tilling or spinning or any semblance of toil, soon perished when their 
paradise was invaded. African slavery was introduced to save the children of 
Cxiba from sinking under tUe tasks beyond their strength imposed by the invaders, 
tut the remorseless Spaniards persevered in their career of grasping tyranny and 
desperate adventure, devoted to gathering treasure to be transferred to the 
Peninsula without a thought of compensating the labor of the sinless and the 
helpless, for whom there was no longer rest or promise of escape from dreadful 

servitude, and for whose loving good will implanted in their tender hearts, there 

127 



128 IM'liUDL ( TIU.N. 

was no response save in the bosom of the good priest, the memory of whose 
benevolent concern has given him a beautiful immortality. 

The Cuban experience of Spanish domination was longer by nearly a century 
than that of tlie South and Central American States, and the effect of the full 
force of the evils confirmed and perpetuated, are marked as with firebrands upon 
the island, a bitter inheritance that under the best conditions will not soon be worn 
away. San Domingo became a synonym of a decline from civilization into bar- 
barism a century ago. The freedom of lofty and opulent Ilayti from the rule of 
foreigners, the transfer of jiower from the masters to the slaves, did not secure 
the contentment and prosperity of the survivors of the slaughters of the revolu- 
tion, for the blood unshed was so mixed, and the traditions that pierced the dark 
gloom of ignorance were so discouraging, that there was propagation of the unfit, 
a rank production of the deplorable that laid the land desolate and largely kept 
it so. In Cuba the Spanish decadence set in earlier by many years than in 
Mexico and Peru — there was half a century more of it to be endured, and the 
leading question is as of old: ""WTiat shall the harvest be?" The fortime of Cuba 
has been harder than that of the Philippines because in the latter the interposi- 
tion of Mexico as Xew Spain made a modification tliat was a betterment of the 
Government. The appointments by the Mexican Supreme Court of the highest 
Philippine authorities were with some regard to character and capacity. Indeed 
there was much that was judicious, and the jiioneer priests in the Philippines 
devoted themselves to a great extent to teaching the people industries that developed 
the riches of the natural resources of the islands. 

The Spanish colonial system as interpreted at Manila was for two huudred 
years an improvement upon that at Havana. The plague and ruin of the unmiti- 
gated Spanish methods were in the unappeasable hunger and strife for spoil, the 
eager appropriation by the master class of the earnings of the subjugated masses, 
and the vindictive spirit in which was cultivated the idea that the Peninsular 
Spaniards were the exclusive rightful rulers, and that even the American-born 
Spaniards must be inferior to the favorites of the Spanish crown who came upon 
the colonies in successive, unfailing hordes of parasites, their vocation the oppres- 
sion of the people, that they might unchecked prey upon all productive industry, 
wliether in the fields, the forests or the mines. There is a melancholy monotony 
in the stories of all the Spanish-American states. There is always the presence 
of injustice, rankling and consuming, and a characteristic horror in the wars for 
the suppressions of rebellions that burst forth when the invariable despotism 
became intolerable. Disordered Cuba Libre is the logical result of Spanish mis- 



INTKODUCTION. 129 

government that neglected every duty and improved all chances to go wrong. The 
government of the island hy and for a crown on the other side of the Atlantic 
for four centuries could not — though it has been often found that there were 
teachings of wisdom in schools of sorrow — prove an ideal preparation of a people 
for the establishment of a stable government. The Cubans now freed from all 
disabilities save their own, are a generation stamped with habits of thought, indoc- 
trinated with certain forms of public business, and so encumbered with a mis- 
leading education, that our advanced American principles arc not immediately 
comprehended, but often received with resentment. The misconduct of the Cuban 
Assembly that has warned our country it is charged with very difficult responsi- 
bilities and that the Cubans as a people have much to learn that is essential, 
could not have been possible but for the long procession of precedents to be 
avoided if the future is to redeem the j^ast. We may think of it with dawning 
confidence, however, that the evolution of one military and popular hero like 
General Gomez is proof that instruments will be found in the Cuban crisis for the 
vindication of the doctrine that the safest preparation for self-government is to be 
free, and that, though redemption from oppression is by the sword, the sword shall 
not devour forever. 



CHAPTER I. 

CUBA AFTEE THE WAR. 

The Changes of Three Years in Cuba — Recollection of the Weyler Period — The 
Fiery Invasion of Western Cuba by Coniez — The Fall of J\Iaeeo and Decline 
of the Flood of Rebellion — American Intervention and Spanish Retire- 
ment — The Stars and Stripes Over Morro Castle and the Governor's Pal- 
ace — The Spaniards" Farewell to Havana — -Wild Cuban Rejoicing — Siianish 
and Cuban Combination Against American Rule — Gomez Meets a Special 
Commissioner and Listens to Reason — His Triumphant Journey to Havana 
and Ovation in the (.'ity — He Does Not Speak at the Ijanquet of Cuban 
Celebration — Spectacular Scenes in the Old Spanish Capital — The Prestige 
of Gomez Challenged by the Hysterical Cuban Assembly — He Is Removed 
from His Command of the Army for O])posing the Creation of a Great 
Public Debt Without "\'ahie Received for the People — The Splendid Letter 
with Which He Thanked the Asseml)ly for Relieving Him of Responsibility 
— The People Are with Him — As a Pacificator He Is a Statesman — The 
Catastrophe to Spain of the Loss of Cuba— Her Golden Island in the 
Summer Seas — The Land of Promise for the Favorites of a Corrupt Gov- 
ernment in the Details of iVdministration — The Harvest Field for the 
Degenerate of a Nation Fallen from the First Place — Did Xot Occur With- 
out Abundant Admonition, and Yet Seemed to the Spectators a Surprise 
in Suddenness. 

Three years ago Captain-General Weyler had just developed his policy oi 
severity, and was, as he said, "Orienting" his enemies. "See how I am driving 
them eastward," he cried. "Wlien I came they were here, and now they are there." 
His w-ords were accompanied by a sweeping gesture from west to east, on a great 
map of Cuba, from the nigged country of Pinar del Rio to the south-eastern 
swamps and forests of Matanzas. The enemy, he said, "might get away,"' but 
would have to make their escape through the impassable marshes, dense with under- 
brush, including thonis and vines; and they might as well be retired in that way 
as to be prisoners. When General Weyler arrived at Havana, General Gomez, 
with his right arm Antonio Maceo, were so near the city that they could, from 
the hill where they were resting close to the sea, west of the Yacht Club's House, 
see the Morro Castle light and count the guns of salutes from the prison fortress 
of Cabanas. The march of the torch bearers and cane burners moving west, mak- 
ing the heavens glow by night with the flaming fields, had been halted. The 
strength of this wild raid ordered by Gomez and fought to a finish at last by 
Maceo, had been spent in the incendiary adventure, and, while the general result 

1.30 



CUBA AFTER THE WAK. 131 

was disastrous to tho prosperous industries, and destructive of the resources of 
both Cubans and Spaniards, it had not been practicable to muster an army 
seriously to assail the Spanish fortified lines. It was the theory of Gomez that, 
once the cane fields and sugar mills were burned, the tobacco plants neglected or 
trampled, and the sheds tor the precious leaves fired, the labor employed would 
be diverted in full force to the insurgent ranks; and there was assembled a throng of 
combatants poorly equipped and incapaljle of discipline. The invasion of the 
Cuban west was like the rush of a torrent that bursts its channel and sweeps on 
with the rapidity of a mountain stream and the destructiveness of lava, until 
the energy of the irruption declined, its movement slackened, the flood receded, 
and the vivid fires were buried in ashes. Then the retreat commenced, and the 
disheartening experience of retiring in the midst of blackened fields and monu- 
mental chimneys, demoralized the boasted army that was jaunty under fiery skies. 
It disappeared in the chaos from which it came, and the best that high military 
capacity, such as Gomez undeniably possessed could do, was to conduct stratagems 
of evasion and encourage popular delusions as to the strength and activity of the 
immediate command of the chief. The policy of destruction was ingeniously ap- 
plied to the disturbance of the American people, and as Gomez was far away, and 
kept the field with only scattered bands, each too small to attract the attention of 
the Spanish army, the telegrams dated at Havana, but wired from Key West 
to the American newspapers, placed the old General, whose consummate game was 
to be quiet, in the attitude of a perpetual thunderer at the gates of Havana. 
Maceo was a daring and brilliant chieftain, whose persevering stand west of 
Havana was the dread and shame of the Spaniards, and the trocha, designed to 
fence him away from the central provinces, was as ineffectual as the concentration 
of columns of Spanish regulars to surround the insurgents were inadequate to 
execute the commonplace plan of all the campaigns. Weyler was a typical Spanish 
chieftain. His strategy was in two parts, one to construct a line of fortified 
posts, string barbed wire from blockhouse to blockhouse, and provide 
a road for the exclusive use of the Spaniards. The other was to "surround" the 
enemy and crush him with converging columns! Against a man like Maceo 
this was futile, but it seemed necessary after some time that the insurgents 
west of Weyler's fence should cross it and agitate the province of Havana. In 
this movement, after demonstrating the failure of the Spani.-h military system, 
Maceo fell a victim to his habitually fierce impatience to seek the hot places 
in all the combats. 

The answer of Weyler to the campaign of desolation by Gomez, was the 



132 L'lBA AFTKE Till-: WAK. 

camps of concentration, the imprisonment and starvation of the peasantry. The 
burning of canefields, mills and plantation palaces by insurgents was answered 
by the annihilation of the villages. The killing of domestic animals by both sides 
followed, and there was famine. The young white men of Cuba who took the 
field failed fast through physical inability to endure the exposure and hardships 
of swampy camps, exhausting tramps and uncertain rations. The insurgents in 
the ranks were, therefore, in constantly increasing proportions black men. The 
people at large of Cuba perished rapidly, and whenever, if ever, there is a reliable 
census, the development will be shocking. During the last year of Weyler the insur- 
gents gained no ground, and their fighting men, adhering in a vague way to 
military organization and enterprise, had little left of the dashing enthusiasm 
of their predecessors in the earlier conditions of warfare. There were manufac- 
tured at Key West, for American consumption, endless stories of '"battles," many 
wholly fanciful, while others were stuffed with exaggerations until distorted into 
falsifications. The' war would have dragged on to a weary length, for there seemed 
to be as slender ability to quit pretended fighting as to perform actions of serious 
war. The Spanish officers did not appear to have an interest in closing the war. 
There was still money of a passable sort to find and spend, and the feeding of 
Spanish troops was a business that kept up the garrison towns. Cubans were to 
a considerable extent inclined to look to the United States for their reward, and 
waited for intervention. Those most in evidence were personages of the "Govern- 
ment," as they styled a few committees whose professions that they were repre- 
sentatives of the people were of high temperature and intensity, but without cor- 
roborating testimony. The Cuban government was principally financial in its 
occupations, and toward the last their armies, with the exception of that of Garcia, 
were like the fever and ague in new countries — always in the next counties. The 
fifty thousand armed Cubans did not put in an appearance until after the Spanish 
surrendered, with the exception of the detachment that checked the Spanish 
re-enforcements going to aid in the defense of Santiago, until the battle of El 
Caney was fought and the city so beset that further fighting was fruitless. The 
Cubans did good service in this case, contributing largely and positively to the 
fall of Santiago. It was in that part of Cuba that rebellions always originated 
and that the insurgents were most stanch in sentiment and steady in the field. 

There was a transformation scene in Cuba after the Protocol of Peace that 
was of profound political interest, full of dramatic situations, and rich with historic 
spectacles. The evacuation of the Cuban cities by the Spaniards was after all the 
tragedies of four centuries, a series of pictures worthy of the pens and pencils 



CUBA AFTKi; TllK WAR. i:^:^ 

of artists, on jiages touched with the light of truth and withiu golden frames 
where ideals that inform rude fact with the glow of imagination, invest the com- 
monplace with associations of immortality. Three years ago Morro Castle stood 
stained and scarred, grim and forbidding, frowning across the harbor at the white 
city of Havana, the Spanish colors, red and yellow, not drooping or faded, but 
flaunting over the weather-beaten walls; and Captain-General Weyler stood in a 
hall whose walls glittered with a hundred Captain-Generals gorgeous in uniforms 
designed to symbolize ]>ower with })omp, and, with iron jaw })rotruded, ho was 
pleased to 23refer in business hours a simjile suit of black alpaca, a belt of Spanish 
colors two inches wide, his only distinction of dress disclosing authority — and there 
came into his presence the wives, children and friends of massacred neighbors, to 
2Dlead without result for protection against assassins that called murder combat. 
Now the flags of the United States and Cuba float on palace and castle and soldiers 
of the United States stand guard in the streets, and there is liberty and jieace, 
no political prisoners, the ceremonies of tyranny discarded, the custom-houses 
free of bribe-takers, the streets clean, the music in the parks the national airs 
of the American n'ation, the mighty overshadowing Republic of the North, a 
majestical and healing presence, the actual people of Cuba seeking to be American 
citizens, for as they look up to the Stars and Stripes they see and know and say 
it was under this shining sign the vampire clutch of Spain was loosened — that 
there came as if by the stroke of an enchanter's wand, peace and liberty; and 
one breathes American air, while dazzling starrj' eyes look from the skies of tropic 
blue upon dungeons empty of jjrisoners whose offense' was a brave fondness for 
freedom. 

One heroic figure arose from the Cuban confusion, and Maximo Gomez, no 
longer a destroyer, is vindicated as a constructive statesman. We find him, instead 
of the enemy of the armed Americans, the defenders of Ciiba, the one man com- 
petent to guide and command the people he fought for to put aside the vain- 
glorious frenzy of the demagogues asserting themselves and following in Cuba 
the madness of the followers of the Tagalo tyrants in Luzon. Gomez, accepting 
America as a friend, asks them to prove themselves fit for friendship. 

The first Cuban demonstrations after the close of the war were not encour- 
aging to those responsible for order and engaged in works of pacification and 
restoration. It was natural that those of the native population of all colors and 
conditions, hasty to take the field of public observation, should be in part on the 
surface as agitators in the cities and re-enforced by the bands of guerrillas that 
found an occupation in ambushing the Spaniards and skirmishing with them, but 



134 CLliA AFTJOK THE WAK. 

doing little for themselves. The novelty of appearing an}'where within reatli 
of the cheap transportation of common walking, and going on parade as the 
gallant soldiers of an always invincible and at last victorions Republic, was power- 
liil. and tlu' grand army tluit bad flourished in the speeches of warlike congressmen, 
and the lurid columns of leading newspapers, and the official reports of confiding 
enthusiasts bearing commissions as generals more or less i i command, came out 
of the retiring places from which they had complacently cr.rried on aggressive war 
by the attrition of inertia, and were ready to be rewarded for personal sacrifices 
of valuable time, and valor disjilayed in combats by telegraph. The fiction of a 
great Cuban army bad been received as fact for some years, chiefly by the inquiiy: 
What were two hundred Thousand Spaniards doing in Cuba if they were not 
antagonized by an army at once vast and valorous? The contact of our army at 
Santiago with the Cuban soldiers should have jiroduced a most favorable inijires- 
sion upon the Americans, whose experience made their evidence competent, espe- 
cially for the reason that Garcia's forces were in all points superior to other armed 
Cubans alleged to be organized, yet the Santiago insurgents were a di?ai)])oint- 
nient, and the enl-isted men of our regiments, seeing in the 'Cuban soldiers the 
"cause of humanity" incarnate, were not as passionate humanitarians as they had 
been. Still, with the exception of the body guard of Gomez, with his best, and, 
apparently, only regiment, the bands under the direction of Garcia were the elite 
of the grand army, that in one of the well-planned campaigns, ^lajor-General 
^liles commanding, put on official paper as an ''au.viliary force" of fifty thousand 
men I However, the Cuban army, battling for the rising republic, was rapidly 
recruited when by force of American arms, assisted by the division of Garcia"s 
troops that held up Escario's column of Spaniards, marching from Holguin by 
way of Bayamo, so that they did not get in until the evening of the memorable 
day, July 3d, after Cervera's fleet had departed from the busy scene of active 
service. The Cubans came out of the bushes in great shape, and were unanimous 
in the assertion of a great principle, which was that they would no+ disband until 
they had l)cen jjaid by somebody, ajid, as the island was devastated and impover- 
ished, and so far as possible in the regions the insurgents held ruined, and there 
had been afflictions of massacre, incendiarism, famine and pestilence; and as the 
United States had spent vast sums in ministrations of beneficence as well as in 
milifiary and naval expeditions, and was unselfish in the intervention by force, it 
was logical to the minds of Cubans of the assembly that the armed legions rising 
fresh from the fertile soil when the soft footsteps Oif the angel messengers of 
peace signaled that all was well, should expect to gatbar a harvest of American 



CUBA AFTER THE WAR. 135 

gold. There were found ruban soldiers ready to go on the pay-rolls in great 
numbers, and they clung to the garrison towns, not as Gomez had "thundered" 
for twelve long months at the gates of Havana — distant four hundred miles from 
the waterworks — they actually arrived, entered into the strong places and reported 
for hard cash, putting themselves in evidence as the vanquishers of Spain. Xot 
a shot was fired as they took possession, and then there were occasional hard 
rubs between the Spanish garrisons, about to retire because Spain had relinquished 
lier riglits, and the Cubans who enjoyed exceedingly the festival of peace. In 
Havana, General F. V. Greene occupied at the Hotel Ingletara the apartments 
that were the home of General Fitzhugh Lee when ho wrestled with so much 
energy, courage and discretion with the Cuban-American citizens of Florida 
naturalization who had heaps of claims and a supply of grievances never quite 
adjusted to the satisfaction of anybody. Several Cuban gentlemen who had not 
done quite all that might have been expected from their antecedents when leading 
Cuban columns on the Ijattlefields. populated chiefly by big coons and blacksuakes, 
found their way to Havana with an advance guard, and played star engagements 
before the curtains in the theaters, so that the proud Spanish heart was filled 
with wrath well nigh to bursting, and at last there was a sensational incident. 
General Greene heard firing in the park across the street in front of the hotel, 
and, stepping upon the marble balcony so often adorned with Spanish colors, the 
tower of Jlorro Castle visible on the left, the statue of the modern Isabella in 
the jj3jk presiding over the music stand, a strange and not unfamiliar spectacle 
was before his eyes. A Spanish skirmish line was advancing in good order and 
rapidly, firing in crossing the pavement, carrying everything before them, the 
spectators rushing bo get out of the fire. In a moment the ring of the Mausers 
was heard under the projecting seconil story over the sidewalk of the house, and 
then the same ominous sounds and screams of wounded mingled on the stairs. 
The General threw open his door, and in a few steps met a squad of Cuban fugi- 
tives running to gain protection in his room. One was bleeding — all were justified 
in the keenest apprehension as they rushed quickly behind the General and 
through his door, availing themselves of such facilities of fortification as the 
furniture afforded. The Spaniards were close at hand, one officer with drawn 
sword, in the midst of a dozen men with rifles. The General was in full uniform 
and stood firmly holding up his right liand with a gesture of command, saying 
in Spanish, "Stand back. AMiat do you want here?" "We want the Cubans.'" 
"You eanno-t have them. They are unarmed and under my protection." The 
Spanish officer recognized an American General, regained his self-possession. 



136 CUBA AFTEK THE WAR. 

salutetl and ordered liis men to retire, which they did promptly. It was the Amer- 
ican uniform that had saved tlie Cubans, who had been celebrating the victories 
of the Grand Army of the Cuban Republic, not so wisely as too much. The 
time was not quite propitious for a Cuban carnival. There were many affairs of 
friction that struck fire, but presently under American influence there was a toler- 
able degree of forbearance on both sides — that is, between the Spaniards of the 
Island and those of the Peninsula. Tlie actual government of the island would 
be about the same in the hands of these islanders as of the peninsulars. The 
true people of Cuba are not of either party, as we use the word, of Spaniards. It 
is possible that the Dominican origin of Maximo Gomez may have advantages 
unexpected. He was an absolute despot and incendiary during the war. His 
bulletins reduced boastfulness to a moderation not characteristic of other com- 
manders on either side engaged in the field. He was a remarkably frecpient and 
forcible letter-writer, but was not the author of the novelettes wired for American 
consumption as news. Gomez did order the burning of cane fields, under the 
force of a mistaken policy tliat corresponded, in some particulars — it being a 
strategic error for one tiling — with the burning of cotton in the Soutli during the 
War of our States, divided as National and Confederate. When we consider how 
slender the military resources of the Cuban Commander-in-Chief were, he made 
a brave show, and kept the field with surprising skill and unflinciiing courage 
and liopefulncss. He was accused constantly by tlie Spaniards witli having been 
bribed liv }*hniinez Campo.-; at tlie close of the ten years' war, but the ladies of 
his family, his wife and daughters, during his long absence as the military head 
of tlie Cuban rebellion, were self-supporting at their Dominican home as teachers 
and dressmakers. They are women of intelligence and education, and have the 
merit of honorable and uncomplaining poverty. His son, on the statT of Maceo, 
though wounded, chivalrously refused to leave the body of his fallen leader, and 
was chop])ed to death with machetes. It has been accepted as a true story that 
^Maximo Gomez has been from liis youtli- — a long time, as he has entered his seventy- 
fiftli year — in favor of a West Indian Confederacy, hoping and believing the Euro- 
pean possessions would not be difficult if the jjolicy of relinquishment was per- 
suasively and forcibly presented, Init he thought the real obstacle to the accom- 
plishment of compreliensive ambition was our country, and that, therefore, he was, 
in matters of state, our enemy. He has had a right to infer from the public 
■official records and the public ]iress that "We, the People of the United States," 
want Cuba, and to oppose us as the champion of leadership in the Confederate 
Indejiendence of the Great Antilles. It does not become us to complain of his 



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FAMOUS W.U.K BETWEEN THE KOYAL PALMS IX HOXOLULTT. 




NrrANU VALLEY PASS AND PALI PE.VK. 1,207 FEET HIGH. XEAK HONOLULU. 



CUBA AFTER THE \YAP,. 1;J9 

sentiments so long as they are respectful and not an expression of ingratitude 
and ill will. We had not anticipated, so ruthless has he been in war and relentless 
in liis orders and proclamations and sanguinary and incendiarj" in his marches, 
that we were not prepared to find him in his dealings with us since the war ended. 
not the implacable warrior who used fire and sword, and by the ruin of planta- 
tions placing "the San Domingo brand" on the Cuban struggle, but a conservative 
citizen, whose ideas were those not of a bushwhacker but a statesman. We had 
expected him to be our most troublesome adversar}", and find him our best friend, 
and with the light thrown upon his character, we are able to offer a satisfactory 
solution of the Cuban problem. There may be some mistake about it after all, but 
as the case strands it is a duty to give a verdict that he is an honest man. Being 
the miiitary Commander-in-C"liief of the Cuban insurgents, he has had experience 
of the fraud in the civil organization called the Cuban Eepublic, and does not 
countenance the struggles of those who have padded that government and stuffed 
the pretended army rolls with the names of alleged officers to raise money to support 
their pretensions. Those who find it consists with their duty to give helpful 
consideration to the fraudulency that has palpably discredited the Cuban cause, 
have made war upon General Gomez because he has been honorably just in his 
judicial attitude. He never served Ctiba so well, no matter how high his mili- 
tary service may be rated, as in preventing the Cuban people and the people of 
the United States falling into irreconcilable controversy over impossible demands, 
for many millions from us on account of an army that came to the front power- 
fully with peace, though they were not in such array significant in war. The 
claims were largely based on padded pay-rolls, and it is fortunate for Cuba that 
the militarv leader whcse only weakness was in his slender array of forces, does 
not enter into the scheme of paying off an army organized for revenue only. 
It is fortunate for the United States that the falsity that has damaged the standing 
of the Cuban people is repudiated ly the man known to the world to have been 
the Commander-in-Chief of the men who fought for freedom, who proves his in- 
tegrity ly hardihood for the right, and opens the way for the Cuban people to aid 
tlie United States in the establishment of a stable Government, for there must be 
truth and honor to depend upon or the structure of atithority will be on a founda- 
tion cl' sand and totter to a speedy fall. 

The American forces in Cuba, since the Spaniards got in the way of getting 
out of the island, have been handled by military men who were intolerant of false 
]^rctcnders and conducted affairs, great and small and of all kinds on straight lines. 
In Santiago a group of business men in the first days of resumption of ordinarv 



140 c: BA afti:r the war. 

avocations, thought it well, a? the same class of men r.ldin Manila, to propose a 
coniplimentarj- "concession." The sum in Santiago tendered for special privileges 
was several thousand dollars, and abruptly refused, while the permission desired 
was granted at once on the ground that it was perfectly legitimate, requiring 
neither license nor fee. The difficulties have been with the class of Cubans 
who wore loud and lavish in demands for American protection, on various excuses, 
a fabulous citizenship among others, before the war. These persistent persons 
were ready and more than willing to take charge of all the functions of govern- 
ment, and whenever they were not accepted at their own estimate they showed 
signs of feeling that they were wronged men and felt that bloodshed was neces- 
sary. There was one.man not in a hurry to go into the midst of the commotion, who 
bided his time, was secluded in his camp, neither obtrusive fdr others nor impor- 
tunate for himself. He was really an old soldier who had done enough to cause 
extensive differences of opinion as to his character, and his policy. His name 
was iMaximo Gomez. It was the prevailing impression that he was a veteran 
revolutionist, and a man of positive ability, who would be the master mind among 
the mischief makers. It turns out that he has pursued a course that rallies to his 
support the people of Cuba who are capable of making the competency of Cubans 
to govern themselves evident, and that il the island is some day to be a responsible 
nation or an acceptable State in the great republic of States, he will be the architect 
of the good fortune of the people. 

January 1st, 1899, at noon, the Spanish .standard of gold and red descended 
the flagstaffs on the palace and Morro Castle, salilted by American guns. General 
Castellanos, the last of the Captain-Generals, then surrendered the island. to the 
American commissioners of evacuation. General Wade and General Butler. The 
sovereignty of Cuba renounced, as the American flag flashed on high, there 
was a thundering roar from the fleet of the conquerors, and the band of the 
Sixteenth United States Infantry played "The Star Spangled Banner" in t!ie Plaza 
de Armos, before the palace, near the Ceba tree that stands where its predecessor 
with like splendor stood, under which the first mass was celebrated in the island — 
at least a tradition says so — and near at hand, half a block down the street, is 
the wharf from which sailed the expeditions whose voyages are wonders of history — 
of Cortez, Pizarro and Hernando de Soto. The Cuban Junta had the accustomed 
intensity of anxie'"es to flourish on this occasion and the insurgent chiefs, after 
they had been for awhile in torment because they were not to be the chief actors 
that day, were consoled by invitations to attend the function at the palace. The 
master of ceremonies was General Clous, who issued instructions to the officers 



CUBA AFTEE THE WAR. 141 

who were to take charge of the various departments of the government. Colonel 
Dudley was assigned to the Department of Justice, office of the secretary of the 
Captain-General; Major L. W. V. Kennon, Adjutant-General of the Department, 
to the Department of Commerce and Agriculture; Colonel T. U. Bliss, of the Com- 
missary Department, to the Treasury; Captain Frank B. Hanna, Assistant Adjutant- 
General, to the Department of Public Instruction, and Colonel Dunwoody, of the 
Signal Corps, to the Puhlic Works Department. Each of these officers was in- 
structed thus: 

'"On the firing of the last gun of the first twenty-one at noon, you are to 
go the jilace assigned you and demand possession of the office in the name of the 
United States." 

These orders were given under the arcade of the palace. 

On entering the palace the American generals went to the salon facing" the 
plaza, which is on the second floor. It is a lofty chamber, decorated with mirrors 
of deep gilt frames, white satin draperies and the scarlet arms of Spain over each 
door and window. Here were gathered the members of the Captain-General's 
staff. 

After shaking hands General Brooke sat upon a sofa, while General Cas- 
tellanos moved toward the group of Cuban generals. British Vice-Consul Jerome 
introduced him to General Mayia Eodriguez. Shaking both the hands of the 
Cuban officer, in the usual Spanish fashion. General Castellanos said: 

"We have been enemies, but I respect you for your correct attitudes and 
opinions. I have ]ileasure in shaking your hands."' 

General Kodriguez replied: 

''I thank you, General. I feel sorrow for the Spanish army, which has 
defended the banner it was sworn to defend. I also have pleasure in shaking 
your hands." 

The hour long waited, when the Spanish were to give up their greatest and 
last possession in America, was announced by the striking of twelve o'clock, and, 
pale-faced, with a broken voice, General Castellanos said: 

"In accordance with the treaty of Paris, it devolves upon me to declare on 
behalf of my country and my king that from this moment Spanish sovereignty 
in Cuba is ended, and to deliver the island to the American commission of evacua- 
tion. I obey and respect the order which my country has laid it upon "me to 
fulfill, and I declare most solemnly that I shall be the first one to render obedience 



U2 CUBA AFTER THE WAI{. 

to the new government. I speak as well for my soldiers. I trust our future 
relations will Ije friendly and helpful. The consideration with which we treated 
the American army while it was our guest will, we hope, be given to us until the 
evacuation of the island is completed." 

General Wade, the son of l)rave old Senator "Hen" Wade of Ohio, uttered 
two words, "I accept," and the command was turned over to (leneral lirooke, who 
said: 

"I accept this great trust in behalf of the Government and the President 
of the United States, and (addressing General Gastellanos) I wish you and the 
gallant gentlemen with you a pleasant return to your native land. May prosperity 
attend you and all wlio are with you." 

The Cubans who watched the Spanish flag come down are described as "a 
hysterical mob of men and women cheering and weeping." Tlie Spaniards stripped 
the walls of the palace of their glittering paintings of Spanish uniforms for 
viceroys. In going out of the palace General Gastellanos, said, losing composure: 

"I have been in as many battles as there are hairs on my head, but these forces 
overcome me." 

Eight regiments of American volunteers marched through the city, up the 
Piado, the route the Spanish regiments landed at Havana always took for their 
first parade on the fatal soil of Cuba. The Americans j)resent at the surrender 
were Brooke, Wade, Butler, Ludlow, Chaffee, Davis, Clous and Humphreys, with 
Commodore Cromwell and Captains Cook, Sigsbee, Chester, Cowles, Eaton and 
Merry of the six warships in the bay. 

General Lee, after riding at the head of the parade, appeared on the balcony 
of the palace, where a tedious series of Captain-Generals had been presented under 
their white-plumed hats, to hear the shouts of the populace, who made fair weather 
with rulers. The reception of General Lee was everywhere a hearty greeting. 
There were wild cheers always as he was recognized, and there was no figure 
more famous. During the last moments of the farewell of the Spaniards it is 
related a Spanish girl on a balcony of one of the houses along this street displayed 
a Spanish flag and cried, "Viva Espana, viva el Capitan-General." In an instant 
Castellanos and his staff were sobbing. It wa=; an extraordinary scene. Their grief 
was respected, and a small throng of Spaniards at the wharf embraced them, with 
cries of "Long live Spain" and "Long live Castellanos." His staff officers tried 
to respond, Imt their emotions made their replies inaudible. 



CUBA AFTEK THP: WAR. 143 

Just at this time an American flag was raised over the wreck of the Maine, 
close to the spot where the last* footsteps of the Spanish authorities fell as they 
turned away from Cuba and boarded their boats! The incident has a pathos like 
that of "the last sigh of the Moor" when, at a turn of tlie road, he looked for the 
last time on the towers of Granada, surrendered to Ferdinand and Isabella, upon 
whom Christopher Columbus was waiting to obtain their help to find a new 
world, of which Cuba was the gem that remained longest in the crown of Spain. 
General Brooke, when the insurgent officers paid him their formal respects in a 
body, said: 

''You know the circumstaiu-es in which American troops have come to your 
shores. Fxtraordinary efforts may be necessary on your part. I expect your fullest 
co-operation." 

The cfiiclal calde report runs: 

"Havana, January 1. — To the President, Washington: The government for- 
mally surrendered by General Castellanos to American commission at 1"2 o'clock 
and by latter transferred to General Brooke. Ceremonies successfully carried out. 
The American flag flies from Morro Castle, Cabanas, the palace and other build- 
in srs City orderly. 

"WADE, Chairman; 

"CLOUS, Secretary." 

The progress of the American troops through Cuba was attended with gratify- 
ing expressions of the kindly feelings of the people and their gratitude for value 
received. ^Ir. James Lacey, of the Second Illinois Volunteers, wrote of the journey 
by rail, 170 miles from Havana to Cienfuegos, beginning December 30tli, that 
at all stops the soldiers received ovations. He wrote: 

"Thousands of Cubans met us, threw flowers at us and gave us sweetmeats,. 
In some instances the beautiful Cuban girls could not restrain their joy at seeing 
their benefactors and kissed the boys. 

"At Matanzas the streets were thronged, the houses decorated and tlie citizens 
dressed in holiday attire, awaiting us. Aroimd the ears when the engine came 
to a halt the residents crowded so near that it was almost impossible to disembark, 
^lien we did it was to meet a reception the like of which we had never experi- 
enced before. 

"The Cuban girls gave us relics, cheered us until their throats were sore and 
then marched us to a hall, where a magnificent dinner was served. The boys 
were not allowed to spend a cent. In the cafes and cigar stores the waiters refused 
to take our money. 'Merchants stood on the pavement^ and invited the soldiers 



144 Cl'liA AFTEK THE WAR. 

inside to take anything their eyesight fancied. Of course, none of these generous 
invitations were accepted. 

"During the stop at JIatanzas some of tlie boys entertained the Cubans by 
giving an exhibition of an American cake walk. Frank Weaver, William J. 
Enderle, Peter Erickson and Corporal Peter Nelson, of Company G, led a grand 
parade through the princijial streets, followed by 10,000 men, women and children. 
Bands were playing everywhere, the streets were strewn with flowers and from 
nearly every throat came the exultant cry of 'Vive Americano!' 

"Our next stopping place was at Santa Clara, where our reception was no less 
enthusiastic than at ^Matanzas. From Santa Clara to this city the natives shouted 
'welcome' to us from every quarter. 

"The day following our arrival here the Spanish flags were hauled down from 
all public buildings and the Stars and Stripes run up. Major Dusenberry had 
charge of these formalities. After Old Glory had been placed on the custom-house 
the citizens went into a delirium of joy. Jlen hugged each other and the women 
kissed tlie soldiers until some of the latter complained of being tired." 

There were 22,000 Spanish soldiers still in the province where this reception 
of American soldiers took place. 

One of the first things that came in view after the military Spanish evacu- 
ated Cuba was the combination understanding reached by the Spanish civilians, 
whose home was in Cuba, and the Cubans. An article appeared in the Diairo de la 
Marina, the principal journal of Havana, and pro-Spanish, January 12, in which 
it "could not see much further need of American troops in Havana or Cuba." 
It said "the Spanish understand the Cuban leaders." The latter, it claimed, had 
demonstrated their aliility to preserve order, as they had been in undisputed control 
of 9G per cent of the Cuban towns. The situation, it was. argued, annihilated 
annexation. There was a good deal of this for a few days. The true intent was 
to make arrangements to minimize the American influences and provide for the sub- 
stantial continuance of the old Spanish system. 

Bishop Santander, the head of tlie Catholic church in Cuba since the resigna- 
tion of the archbishop of Santiago, accepted the honorary presidency of the 
Spanish Association of Loyal- Peninsidares, whose devotion to their mother coun- 
try does not make them love Cuba less. The bishop's acceptance raised a storm 
of protest in the rank and file of the Cuban church, who believe the prelate should 
keep entirely out of politics. Through his secretary he declared that be would 
not take the oath of allegiance to the T'nited States, saying: 

"I have always believed tb.at Cuba's interests were best foster(id by Spanish 
rule," he told me, "and T see no reason wbv I should change mv conviction." He 



CUBA AFTER THE WAR. 145 

declined to talk ahoiit the financial status uf the church or the plan it will adopt 
to sttpport the clergy without state aid. 

General Gomez made a speech at Carilia Rien, urging unity, and his order to 
keep the Cuban army under organized discipline to prevent the troops from scat- 
tering Into brigandage was believed to have had much to do with bringing the 
Spanish element to look with favor upon free Cuba. Cuban soldiers were unpaid, 
poorly fed and dissatisfied, of course. If turned loose they would take to the 
woods and resume guerrilla warfare. 

It does not seem to them or to their advisers that they had a possible resource 
in going to work and assisting to get in a sugar crop, compensating for the waste 
of fields with fire. 

December 29th Gomez issued from his camp a proclamation advising the Cuban 
army against disbanding xmt'il the proceedings at Washington regarding the pay 
of the insurgent troops have been completed. It is dated December 29 and says: 

"The moment has arrived to give a public explanation of my conduct and my 
purposes, which are always in accord with my sense of duty to the country I serve. 
The Americans, tacitly our allies, have terminated the war with Spain and signed 
a treaty of peace. But Cuba is not yet free or independent. Self-government is 
not yet constituted. For that reason we must dedicate ourselves to bringing about 
the disappearance of the cause for American intervention. 

"But, above everything else, in the spirit of justice to the Cuban army, it is 
necessary that before the liberators of the people can dissolve, as a guaranty of 
order, that the debt which the country owes to its soldiers should be satisfied. 
Awaiting this result, I remain in my iiresent position, always ready to help the 
Cubans finish the work to which I have dedicated my life." 

During a masquerade at the Havana Club House on the night of January 
20th in honor of the Cuban Assembly Major-General Ludlow, Military Governor 
of the Department of Havana, sent a staff officer to stop the discharge of fire- 
works in front of the clubhouse. The Cubans were at first disposed to be resentful, 
but, after some boisterous talk, gave up the display. 

The Cubans of the sort of the alleged •'Assembly" had from the first had the 
Junta characteristic of acute emotions about financial transactions. There was in 
January a muddle over the Spanish bank ta.\ collection. The Cuban Assembly 
party were swift to ally themselves with Spaniards in sympathy as against Amer- 
icans, but were stricken with horror regarding the Spanish Bank. There was 
some reason for agitation before the correct solution was reached, that the United 
States should have a fiscal system not transmitted from the Spaniards. 

The privilege which the bank held from the Spanish Government of selling 



Ufi CLIiA Al-Ti;i{ THE \VA1{. 

stamped paper was not involved in the controversy, because under American control 
stamped paper was abolished. The tax collection had nothing to do with the 
legal proceedings which were commenced to test the responsibility of the Spanish 
bank for the liillets or paper currency which was issued by direction of the Spanish 
Government during the insurrection. This action was foreseen, and when the issue 
was ordered the bank sought to protect itself from liability, and was thouglit to 
have done so successfxilly. Twenty million dollars of this raonej', called "writers' 
scrip," was known to have l)ccn issued, and a larger amount was suspected. Origi- 
nally $3,000,000 in gold was held in the bank as a redemption fund. Afterward 
$6,000,000 in silver was substituted and 10 per cent of the customs duties was 
exacted in billets. This was said to have been canceled when paid in. During 
the blockade Blanco took all the silver reserve away from the bank. The billets 
reached a nominal quotation of 5 cents on a dollar. Speculators bought bushels 
of them, and they demanded that the bank be compelled to repay the alleged 
misappropriation of municipal and school fluids during Weyler's time. 

A dis{)atch from London February 2d saj's: 

"A former captain of the Cuban army, Juan Fernandez, the London repre- 
sentative of General Jlaxiifio Gomez, issued, by order of the latter, to-day, previous 
to the receipt here of the Remedies dispatch showing the settlement of the Cuban 
difficulty, a long, bombastic statement purporting to explain the situation in Cuba. 
He said: • 

"'The proffered $3,000,000 for the payment of tlie Cuban troops has birn 
refused as totally inadequate to meet the expenses and losses of the troops, mauy 
of whom have lost all proofs that they arc owners of projierty, whicli is now being 
monopolized by American capitalists and railroad magnates. Even twice the 
$6,000,000 demanded liy General Gomez would not properly recoup tlie Cubans. 
We all respect President ilcKinley and the American Government, but we have 
no respect for the petty officials employed by the United States Government, who 
are exercising as bad tyranny toward the Cubans as did the Spaniards. This 
tyranny and lack of money is driving the Cubans headlong to rebellion. If the 
demands are not satisfied they will follow in the footsteps of the Filipinos and 
resist to the death the authority of the United States in Cuba. God knows how 
it will result, but carnage and the annihilation of the Cubans is inevitable. God 
forbid that it should come to that. I will even add "Vive la Repubbca de Ameri- 
canos." ' 

"Fernandez recounts, in the course of his statement, as an example of the 
alleged tyranny of minor officials, the story of the alleged emjdoyment of himself 
bv a United States naval attache in London to ])roceed to Spain on secret service 



cur. A AITEli THE WAK. 14? 

during the war. He relates the dangers he recounted and the success he achieved, 
and says that when he returned here the United States embassy refused to make 
him any further payments, although he was $250 out of pocket, above the travel- 
ing expenses given liim. He further assorts that the United States Ambassador 
refused to see him, although he says lie had a letter from tlie Department of State, 
in reply to his complaint, telling him to see the Ambassador." 

How far the name of General Gomez was used without authority in this case 
the General alone can tell, but the sickening and bombastic style of Fernandez, 
willing to accept the money of the United States to pay for the fires kindled for 
Cuba Libre, making the fat land lean, is perceptible in every line. 

President McKinley, after watching intently the course of the Cubans, whose 
conduct by the time the Spanish troops had left the island was thi'eatening, while 
these demands were preposterous, sent Mr. Robert P. Porter to find Gomez and 
ascertain what his feeling was regarding the dissatisfaction among the Cubans 
which had developed dangers. In the last days of January the Special Commis- 
sioner met General Gomez at Eemedios, Province of Santa Clara. When Mr. 
Porter arrived at the GeneraFs camp he was accompanied by Seiior Gonzales 
Quesada, the special commissioner of the Cul)an .Junta at Washington; Captain 
Campbell of General Brooke's staH': Lieutenant Hanna of General AVood's staff, 
and a correspondent of the Associated Press. 

General Gomez had gone to his camp this morning, but he returned accom- 
panied by his staff and fifty horsemen on various kinds of mounts. They rode past 
the hotel where Mr. Porter was stopping, around the Plaza and to a side street 
to the Cuban headquarters. General Gomez was seen by Senor Quesada this after- 
noon, and after an hour's conference Mr. Porter, accompanied by Senor Quesada, 
Captain Campbell and Lieutenant Hanna, was received by General Gtimez in his 
parlor, up one flight of stairs, and in the presence of his staff. 

The old general wore no insignia of his rank. He was dressed in a linen 
coat and dark trousers, and had a silk handkerchief over his coat collar. He also 
wore a black tie, and showed a heavy silver watch and chain, with a silver cross 
attached to it. 

The Cuban commander was cordial in greeting Mr. Porter and opened the 
interview by referring to the change for the better which had taken place in Cuba 
since he was last here in September. He also laid stress on the fact that some 
people were asking where was Cuba's promised liberty. 

"The answer to this," said Mr. Porter, "is that Cuba now has commercial 
and industrial liberty, and that President McKinley has directed me in framing 



US CUBA AFTER THE WAR. 

the Cuban tariff to make no discriminations in favor of the Fnitcd States in the 
manner that Spain favored herself. Cuba is free to-day to buy in the cheapest 
market. People are returning to the pursuits of peace, and our military govern- 
ment will give way to the civil government as fast as possible." 

Mr. Porter also said that the purpose of the American Government was to 
lay a firm foundation for a stable government for Cuba, to give the Cubans all 
the liberty they had fought for, and that General Gomez must remember that, and 
more still. For instance, there were 25,000 or 30,000 Spanish soldiers at Cien- 
fuegos who had not left Cuba; we had only been a month on the island, and 
President Mclvinley needed and was entitled to the co-operation of all interested 
in the welfare and future of Cuba, and he needed the co-operation of General 
Gomez above all others. 

The first problem, 'Sir. I'ortcr then pointed out, was the disbandment of the 
Cuban army and the return of the Culjan soldiers to work. This was the specific 
mission which had brought Mr. Porter to Remedios and in which President Mc- 
Kinley e.xpected General Gomez' aid. 

The Cuban Commander-in-Chief replied that he was ready and willing to give 
the aid required, but asked how he could do so. 

To this Mr. Porter replied that President McKiuley would be glad to have 
him go to Havana and co-operate with General Brooke in disbanding the Cubans 
and in paying over the $3,000,000 appropriated for that purpose. 

General Gomez said the amount was too small, but that was not his fault, 
and he would make it go as far as possible, likening it to the miracle of the loaves 
and fishes. 

"Xo man in history,"' said ilr. Porter, '"has done so much with such small 
resources as you have done. Hence your co-operation with General lirixike will 
bring good results." 

General (iomez especially requested the money, for which ilr. Porter had 
orders in his pocket, should be paid over to General Brooke and not to himself, 
as he did not want the personal responsibility of keeping it. 

The Cuban general then assured Captain Campbell of his good feeling toward 
General Brooke, and the formal compact was presented by Mr. Porter and a.ssentcd 
to by General Gomez. This compact was in these terms: 

"1. The Cuban officers in each province iihall assist the American officers 
in distributing the funds. 

"2. These officers shall at once meet at some convenient point and devise 
when and where the settlements are to be made and arransre anv other details. 



CUBA AFTER THE WAR. . 14!) 

"3. The sum paid to each man shall not be regarded as part payment of salary 
or wages due for service rendered, but to facilitate the disbandment of the army, 
as a relief of suffering and as an aid in' getting the people to work. 

"4. The Cubans sliall surrender their arms to the Cuban xVssembly or to its 
representatives. 

''5. The committee on distribution shall use its best endeavors to distribute 
it among the population so that all may secure work. 

"G. The $3,000,000 shall lie placed subject to the order of General Brooke 
and action in- the matter shall be immediate." 

ilr. Porter declined to be interviewed February 1st except to say that he 
liad received orders from Preside^nt Mclvinley one week ago to-day to bring General 
Gomez and General Brooke together, and, having accomplished this, he was now 
returning home. 

Immediately alter conference General Gomez wrote the following letter to 
President McKinley in Spanish: 

"Eepublic of Cuba, Headquarters of the Army, Remedios, February 1, 1899. — 
President McKinley, Washington: It has been a great pleasure to me to confer 
with your commissioner, Mr. Porter, introduced by my friend, Quesada, and I am 
now aware of and pleased with your wishes. In a short time I shall go to Havana 
and confer with General Broi^ke, so that everything will go well. Following 
your advice, I willingly co-operate in the work of reconstructing Cuba. 

"MAXIMO GOMEZ, General." 

A dispatch from Kemedios, Santa Clara Province, February 2nd stated: 

"General JIaximo Gomez, Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban army, placed 
himself squarely in position to-day as an active ally of the United States Govern- 
ment in the work of the reconstruction of Cuba. 

"As a result of the conference which Robert P. Porter, the special commis- 
sioner of President McKinley, has had with General Gomez, the latter cabled to 
President McKinley this afternoon assuring him of his co-operation in disbanding 
the Cuban army and in distributing among the Cuban soldiers the $3,000,000 
appropriated for the purpose of enabling them to return to their homes. General 
Gomez also telegraphed to Major-General Brooke, saying he would accept the 
latter's invitation to go to Havana. 

"The success of Mr. Porter's mission greatly simplifies the retui'uing of the 
military Cubans to the pursuits of peace. In view of General Gomez' supposed 
attitude of hostility toward the United States Mr. Porter came here clothed with 
ab.?olute authority, and the tender of the $3,000,000 was practically a verbal ulti- 
matum. 

"Mr. Porter made plain the jairpose of the Government and was gratified 



150 CTBA AFTKi; TIIK WAR. 

at the ready response of General Gomez. The conference took place at the house 
here occupied by tlie Cuhan general as his headquarters since coming to town. 

"Gomez at once began to prepare for his trip to Havana, and his attitude was 
more cordial than Mr. Porter expected. He told the latter he was proud to meet 
the special commissioner of the President, and he is evidently much gratified at 
the prospect of tlie early solution of tlie disbandnient problem. The money will 
be sent on Commissioner Porter's order to General Brooke and will be paid out 
as called for by distribution through sub-committees of Cuban and American 
officers in the various provinces. As agreed upon at the conference, the entire 
amount will be paid in silver, ilr. Porter met General Wood on Ms return from 
Remedios, at Colon, and Wood was delighted to hear of the outcome of tlie con- 
ference. Cuban officers who boarded Mr. Porter's special car in the province of 
Santa Clara expressed their satisfaction at the attitude Gomez had taken. 

"General !Monteagudo, commander of the Cubans in Santa Clara province, wlio 
went on board the train, outlined a })lan for policing Santa Clara with Cuban troops 
after the disbandment. He told ilr. Porter he had 3,000 men in the province 
now doing police duty and even guarding American sujijilies." 

February 24lh, nearly two months after the Spanish flags disappeared at 
Havana, General Gomez arrived at her doors — the beautiful suburb of ^lariano 
being the gate. All the way from Matanzas his Journey was a veritabk' triumphal 
procession. His train was the best tliat Cuba alfords, the engine and cars being 
festooned with laurels and decorated with the Cuban coat of arms. The car in 
which Gomez and his staff rode is the one formerly placed at the disposal of the 
Spanish Governor-General. In it Weyler was wont to travel abort the island as 
far as railroads went. 

At Guines a battalion of American troops was drawn up under orders of 
General Douglass. Gomez answered their salute with much grace, but was soon 
compelled to pay attention to the Cubans. He stood on the rear platform of the 
train, where be was mobbed by women, young and olil. who denianiU'd the privi- 
lege of throwing their arms about the old chief's neck and kissing each of his 
cheeks. To this he submitted so willingly that the onlookers were compelled 
to believe that he liked it. 

The train stopjied unly long enough to jierniit the party to take a light lunch. 
Between that village and Cienaga, just outside of Havana, half a dozen stops were 
made to give the jieojile a chance to see their hero. At each stop Gomez appeared 
on the platform and made a short address, promising under Cuba libre full liberty 
and jirotection for all classes. 

He declared the Cubans who carried the animosities of the war into civil 
life to be traitors to the country, and promised s])eedy punishment for outlawry 



CL JJA AFTiaj THE WAK. 151 

of any sort. lie studiously avoideil iiientioiiing tlic I'nited States or American 
troops. 

At L'ienaga several thousand Iiad gathered, and as the train came into sight 
one long cry. "Viva ilaximo Gomez!"" went up. and for fifteen minutes that was 
all that could be heard. Again at this village hundreds of women boarded the train, 
and the old man was hugged and kissed by fair adorers. 

At Buena Vista the train stopped long enough for Gomez and Lee to shake 
hands. As it started the American soldiers were cheering Gomez, wliile from the 
cars hundreds were sliouting "vivas"" for Lee. 

As Gomez stepped from the train at Mariano he was pelted with roses and 
laurel wreaths until he cried for mercy. It required half an hour for the insurgent 
troo])s to extricate their chief from the crowd, which was .mad with enthusiasm. 
Then he was escorted liy the Cuban and American troops to the residence which 
had been prepared for him, and where he dined with General Lee. The procession 
which escorted Gomez to the hidalgo's house was made up as follows: The One 
Hundred and Sixty-first Indiana Kegiment, Major Eussell Harrison, Provost Mar- 
shal of the Province of Havana, a mounted detail, a company of Cuban cavalry, 
General Gomez in a carriage with General Mayia Rodriguez, members of the Cuban 
^Military Assembly and other prominent Cubans in carriages, the Cuban generals 
ajid their staffs, a long line of Cuban cavalry and infantry, and finally a company 
of the First Maine Artillery. 

General Gomez reached Havana February 24th, escorted by General Ludlow 
and his staff and Troop A of the Seventh I'nited States Cavalry. He was at 
the head of 2,000 armed Cuban horsemen and footmen. The people of the city 
were wild with enthusiasm, throwing themselves in front of the General's horse, 
impeding itir progress, and ])elting him with flowers. 

General Gomez arrived on the edge of the town from Marianao at 12:30 P. M., 
escorted b}' the Second Illinois band and three battalions. These battalions then 
returned to their camp and did not enter the city. 

It was the fourth anniversary of beginning the successful insurrection. 

.Vt 12:30 o'clock in the afternoon General Gomez left Cerro, the suburb from 
which the march was to be made, with a procession in the following order of 
formation: 

The band of the Seventh Regiment, mounted, playing the Cul)an hymn and 
national airs; Company L of the Seventh United States Cavalry; the staff of 
General Gomez, with escort; General ilayia Jfodriguez and staff, General ilaximo 
Gomez, upon whose right was Major-General Ludlow; the members of Major- 



lo2 . ( TllA AFTKR TlIK WAli. 

General Ludlow's staff, tlim a great miiiiber of Cuban generals and officers, some 
mounted and some in carriages, and, finally, 3,C00 Cuban cavalry anil infantry. 

As General Gomez passed the crowd went wild with vivas, hats were flung in 
the air and women showered flowers on all sides. lie bowed and raised his hat 
incessantly as the crowds struggled to get near his horse and clung to the animal's 
sides as long as possible. 

The procession stopped frequently, eventually filing into the main street of 
the city, passing Central park and arriving at the jialace at 2:30 o'clock. The Prado 
and ctlier avenues were lined with patriotic clubi;, taking up various positions of 
vantarc and tlun joining ilic \ n cession as it passed on from the palace, from 
a balcony of which it was reviewed by General Gomez. 

Once at the palace; the ('ul)an Commander-in-Chief was welcomed by Federico 
ilora, the Civil Governor; Jlayor Perfecto Lacoste, the members of the city 
council, the Junta Patriotica, the members of the Assembly, the officials of all 
classes and numerous jiatriotic clubs. The palace was beautifully decorated, 
all previous efforts in the disjilay of banners and bunting surpassed by the showing 
of silk embroidered standards and flags, hundreds of wliich were carried by ITavana's 
daughters. 

Following the procession were many private carriages, filled with wdmtn 
representing the best society, some allegorically dressed and others waving flags. 
The Cuban bands played the Culian national hymn, varying this with "Dixie." 
"The Star-Si)angled Banner," "The Stars and Stripes Forever," and popular 
American marches. 

There were many allegorical floats expressing the friendship between Cuba and 
the United States. Two attracted particular attention, each drawn by three yoke 
of cattle. One represented the Cuba of yesterday, a woman standing with manacled 
hands — a broken wheelbarrow and other signs of desolation at her feet: the other, 
llie Cuba of to-day, a woman under a palm, smiling and surrouiuhd liy evidences 
of jrcsperity. The contrast was very effective and everywhere api)lauded. ' There 
was one representative float in honor of the country of Gomez. Several figures 
dressed as North American Indians were conspicuous. Xo fewer than 23,000 
people were in line, reipiiring tlirce lidurs to jiass a given point. 

.\fter the review at the palace General Gomez, accompanied by his staff, pro- 
ceeded to El Vedado to visit Governor-General Brooke. In the evening he attended 
the charity ball at the Tacon theater, where the best Havana society was presentr 
Boxes for the function sold at a high premium. 

As the darkness approached the streets were still crowded, fireworks exploding 



L'UJJA AFTEK THE WAR. l'>3 

and the returning bands ])laying over and over again the national hymn. The 
theaters gave patriotic performances and there were fireworks and music in Cen- 
tral park. 

A dit^patch fi'oni Havana February 2iSth said: 

"This ai'ternoon the Prado and park were crowded with merrymakers, it being 
th'? last carnival Sunday. People wearing masks and throwing flour were every- 
where. General Gomez, in a fonr-horse drag, with Miss Herrara seated on his 
right, drove up and down the Prado thrice and around the park, followed by 
crowds on foot and horseback, and was greeted with vivas and loud cheers. The 
drag was covered with bright-colored paper streamers, and the carnival license 
allowed the merrymakers to throw flour upon the General. 

"The presence of General Gomez in Havana and his participation in the 
carnival demonstrations has increased the feeling and the open talk in favor of 
independence and of a brief continuance of the military occupation. Cuban 
opinion, liowever, is so inconsistent that not much importance can be attached to 
this. 

'"The banquet at the Tacon theater proved a brilliantly successful affair. 
Governor-General Brooke and Major-General Lee spoke. Cubans generally regard 
the occurrences at the function as the most promising auguries of Cidjan inde- 
pendence since the peace protocol was signed. The theater was crowded to over- 
flowing with spectators and more than 200 covers were laid for the banqueters. 
Besides the Governor-General and General Lee the company included Jlajor- 
General I^udlow, (icncral Chaffee, the Governor-General's chief of staff, the staffs 
of Generals Lee and Ludlow and other army and navy officers, together with 
many prominent citizens and Havana officials, (icneral Andrade sat on the right 
of General (lomez and jMayor Lacoste on his left. 

"The boxes were filled with people representing Havana's best society. As 
the American generals entered a trumpeter at the door blew once, whereupon a con- 
cealed band played the "Star "Spangled Banner."' When the Cuban commanders 
entered the trumpet was sounded twice and the band played the Cuban hymn. 
Among the speakers were Seiior Pedro Llorento, Colonel Carlos Garcia, Cualberto 
Gomez and Dr. Lanuza, Secretary of the Department of Justice. The tendency of 
all the speeches was toward independence for Cuba, with eulogy of General Gomez 
and ;issertions that he must never more leave the island. The spectators called 
%ociferously for a speech from JIajor-General Lee. His remarks and those of 
General I'rooke were translated [ov the benefit of the Assembly by Senor Pablo 
Desvernines, Secretary of the Department of Finance. 



154 CUBA AFTER THE WAK. 

■'Both the American generals repeated former statements of the military ad- 
ministration, chiefly along the lines of assurance that the United States intended 
to establish a stable government in the island and then to deliver it to the Cubans 
themselves. These assurances were vociferouf^ly applauded. 

"Colonel Garcia explained the disinterested position of American military 
officers in Cuba. General Gomez himself did not speak, owing to the hoarseness 
from which he was suffering. General Andrade expressed thanks on his behalf, 
adding in his name that the banquet had done much to bring the Cuban and 
American elements to a clear understanding and to define the position, work and 
aims of the United States military administration in Cuba. General Gomez 
withdrew from the theater about midnight, crowds in the street applauding ban 
wildly as he emerged and following his carriage for blocks. 

"General Gomez, inui-li in need of rest, said to a friend: "'riiis jiopulnrity 
is killing me.' " 

Of the scenes on the "..Mtli of February in Havana a cable from tliat city ran 
as follows: 

"Cuban patriotism is satisfied. Tjie insurgent soldiers luive marched through 
Havana streets bearing their arms, and General Gomez has been received with 
military honors by the American military commanders. Surrounded by them, 
he watched 2,500 of his soldiers defile in the Plaza of Arms past the palace. 

"At the Cuban celebration expressions of good-will toward .Americans were 
universal. The events of the day were creditable to the Cubans, and were also 
significant in the lack of resentment toward the Spanish classes. It was not a day 
of rejoicing for. Spaniards, yet they could not fail to be gratified at the care taken 
to avoid wounding their susceptibilities. 

"The fiestas were not solely in honor of Gomez, as this was the fourth anni- 
versary of the beginning of the revolution, but Gomez was the hero. There could 
be no doubt of his popularity. It seemed to partake more of gratitude than of 
personal affection, but the acknowledgment of his leadership was universal. Some 
scenes were tropical in their emotional effusiveness. The climax was reached 
when Gomez arrived at the palace, and was received by General Ludlow and otlier 
American commanders. 

"The ])arade itself gave a good opportunity to judge of the sentiments of llie 
people. The Americans remarked with satisfaction that the Stars and Strijies 
were seen everywhere. They fioated over building~ along with the Cuban emblem, 
were interwoven in the triuniplial arches, and among some of the jiatriotie and 



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CUBA AFTER THE WAK. 157 

workingmen's societies appeared to be more numerous than the Cuban fla^s When 
the band played The Hymn of Bayamo' the people were delirious, but they also 
went wild over 'The Star Spangled Banner' and 'Dixie.' Boys from an orphan 
asylum were paraded by an instructor, and at regular intervals cried 'Long live the 
Americans.' A banner carried by Httle girls bore the mottoes, 'Gratitude to the 
Americans' and 'Cuba for the Cubans.' 

"Several Dominican flags were carried out of compliment to General Gomez. 
Three Cuban flags, soiled and torn, were carried by Cuban soldiers, and one which 
was sa:d to have been Maceo's, stirred the deepest emotions. The Cuban troops 
then>selves received fewer evidences of popular feeling than might have been 
anticipated. 

"The incident which attracted the most attention in the celebration was the 
blending of the American, Cuban, and Spanish flags. These three flags were sur- 
mounted by an emblematic banner, with the motto, 'Peace, Harmony and Union ' 
Xo unfriendly demonstration met this suggestion. It was received in respectful 
silence at some places, and at others was cheered. Spanish ribbons were also dis- 
played, and one squad of men marching among the civilian societies was pointed 
out as composed of peninsulars, or Spaniards. Many of the banners bore titles 
such as 'Peace and Concord' and 'A^^ ^^ struggle for Peaceful Industry' 

''The celebration has left a pleasing impression. Xo disorder occurred and 
the absence of _ rancor toward the Spanish classes is causing favorable comment 
These, while quiet, are not as sullen as on January 1, when the American occu- 
pation began. They are pleased at the consideration shown to their feelings 

_ "The Spanish newspapers tell Gomez that they can not greet him as either 
Tictor or liberator because the Americans are the real conquerors and Cuba is 
not liberated, but they are grateful for his influence in establishing peace and 
concord, and promise their adhesion in helping him to get rid of the conquerors " 
The fact that the President of the United States sent a special commissioner 
to meet Gomez and promise that his army should be fairly paid modified his views 
as to the Americans. As late as February 4th he authorized the publication of a 
letter that praised his soldiers and continued: 

"It is wonderful that any are left alive after such a horrible struggle and 
pains. ^U warn you that we may not yet have finished the strange destiny that 
presents this last trial and humiliation. We are strangers in our own country 
still wet with our blood. •'' 

"Forced guidance is hateful to us. It appears that the Americans are reim- 
bursing themselves for their spontaneous intervention in our war for independ- 



158 CUBA AFTEK THE WAR 

ence. Their delay in tliat intervention is still a shame upon them. The Amer- 
icans, instead of aiding, are obstructing the establishment of a free and inde- 
pendent republic. 

"This is our house. We are to live in it. We should furnish it to our own 
liking. I say to you there cannot be peace in Cuba while there lasts that transi- 
tory government, imposed by force, and which is hateful in the eyes of our people. 

"I had hoped to bid farewell to Spain's heroic soldiers, inviting them to 
return and join us as brothers in upbuilding Cuba, but the Americans embittered 
the joy of conquerors by the guidance they impose upon us. Embittering us, they 
have also added grief to the conquered. 

■'In order to put an end to this abnormal and unjust situation every one of 
us must render his aid, tendering anew all his energies to his country, I, first of 
all, offer myself without restriction for the accomplishment of the great under- 
taking of the revolution — the erection of a republic in Cuba." 

The Spaniards did not rejoice to see Gomez triumphant in Havana, for they 
believed the rebellion would, if it had not been for him, have been abandoned 
before American intervention happened. The most graphic account of the Cuban 
troops in the celebration in the capital is this by Dr. Charles Fisher: 

"The insurgents were, perhaps, the most interesting characters in the parade. 
They were mostly negroes, though occasionally a fair sprinkling of lighter-faced 
Cubans was to be seen. They showed hard usage. Their garments were old, 
ragged, dirty and torn. Their guns were of most ancient style, most of them 
the discarded Springfields of our Civil War. Their feet were for the most part 
shoeless, their hats of the pattern made for the bush, a heavy braided straw, 
turned back over the head in front and coming down over the neck; they had 
almost no camp equipage, carried no commissary stores; their ponies were half- 
starved, undersized, equipped mostly with rope bridles and with all styles and ages 
of saddles, and but few of them shod, many only on one, two or three feet. Some 
of the insurgents were mere boys. Others were stalwart fellows who had seen 
many a guerrilla raid and skirmish with the Spanish. They looked like fighters, 
like men who would do as they were told if they died in the attempt. Their 
march was utterly without formation or step, their curiosity at the sights around 
them was unbounded. It was but a remnant of an army which had seen the 
hardest kind of service, the poorest kind of equipment, the meanest kind of sub- 
sistence and nothing whatever in the nature of army comforts or pay." 

On the last day of Fil)ruary General Gomez visited the graves of General 
Antonio Maceo and of Lieutenant Gomez, the son of the Cuban commander, wha 



CUBA AFTEK THE AVAE. 159 

was killed at the time Maceo was drawn into an ambush and shiin. The graves 
are situated at Punta Brava, twelve miles from Havana. 

The Cubans have not, as a rule, been allowed l)y the Spaniards to do much 
business in Cuban cities. It has been Spanish policy to reserve the best things 
for themselves, but the Cuban organizers of their government, and their self- 
constituted Assembly have been mad to turn their situations into ready money. 
Thry wanted to borrow $40,000,000 to pay off the troops, and tlie transaction, if 
they could have raised the cash, would have been one of the most corrupt ever 
entered into through conspiracy. The wretched soldiers would not have gained 
riches out of the pool, but there would have been a Spanish festival of finance. 
The fact that General Gomez was not to be included in this deal, and he had 
been pleased to accep)t the well-considered and entirely reasonable ofEer of three 
million dollars from the United States, filled the fiery soul of the organized Cuban — 
prepared to mortgage the island to turn the Government over to themselves — with 
a horrible fury. Of course Gomez, in cutting down the impossible forty millions 
to three actual millions in hand, was and is discussed as a traitor, and so on 
through the vocabulary of denunciation inherited, along with other valuables, by 
the islands from the Peninsulars; and the Assembly, in one of the sessions in 
which pecuniary passions were torn to tatters, removed General Gomez from com- 
mand — to such an extent as they had power, Init they have little of it in contrast 
with and opposed to tlie gigantic prestige of Gomez, who philosophically said he 
"enjoyed the situation.'' AVhether the Cuban Assembly can prevent the payment 
of the real Cuban troops is the question. There has been a rush of Americans to 
the island with capital, and this movement, enormously advantageous to 
Cuba, will wither like a green thing cut down if the island is to be governed in 
the Junta and Assembly style. The coveted concessions, if the American rule is 
to be continued, will be wanted, but unless it is assumed Americans are to rule 
the land until the "stable government" of Cuba is realized there will be no 
capital to invest. The President of the United States has marked out a plain 
way for the establishment of Culjan order and liberty, and the full expression when 
that is possible of a free people to determine the form of government, its powers 
and limitations will be respected. However, there must be a people, not a Junta, 
for a faction — a Government founded on solid public opinion wrought into law, 
not a group of self-constituted law-g!Ners and providers of bonds to be handled 
on large margins by financiers just now, to be redeemed after awhile, if at all, 
by the industry of those not yet consulted. It is not a matter of capricious will 



160 CUBA AFTER THE W AK. 

to put an end to this "feenance," but of definite duty to perform an obligation 
to the people by one trusted by them. 

That Maximo Gomez is, since the death of Maceo and Garcia, the hero of the 
Cuban war with Spain, and that the people of the island know it and hold him 
in esteem beyond all others is the most important fact in the present Cuban 
situation. It is a happy circumstance that the military chieftain who in the 
Cuban story is first and has no second, under the most trying circumstances shows 
qualities not discovered in any other man of his race and generation. He received 
with dignity and serenity becoming a sure position, in his convictions and deter- 
mination of conduct, the information that the Assembly had attempted to degrade 
him, and placed himself in the letter following on an elevation unattainable 
by those who sought in vain to cover their futile iniquities with his glory. The 
old general issued the following manifesto to the country and tlie army: 

"Using its extraordinary powers, the Assembly of Representatives, which repre- 
sents the arm}', not the people, has deposed me from my rank of Commander- 
in-Chief of the Cuban army, a place to which T was appointed by the revolution, 
and in which I always did my duty. 

"The Assembly considers it a breach of discipline and as showing lack of 
respect that I should refuse to support its efforts to raise loans and enlarge the 
debt of the country. I think that the great financial and political interests of 
Cuba would be compromised by such loans. 

"The country ought to begin to exercise its sovereignty in the new republic 
inspired by the concord proclaimed in the manifesto issued at Monte Cristo, free 
from all financial burdens, and with its national honor safe. Because I think so 
the Assembly has deposed me. 

"I thank the Assembly, because it frees me of great duties. Xow I ran with- 
draw to my home, which I abandoned, this being my only ambition after a thirty 
years' struggle for the good of this country I love so nnuli. 

'Toreigner I am, but I did not come hired or witli mercenary purposes to 
defend Cuba. After Spain withdrew I sheathed my sword because my mission 
was ended. You owe me nothing. I withdraw satisfied that I did all I could 
for my brothers, and wherever it is my fate to plant my tent, Cubans will liave a 
friend." 

This is a noble letter. It has the merit of striking the mark with precision 
and crushing force. The Cuban Assembly, in assailing Gomez, represented the 
■war government of debt makers, whose sole policy is to snatch customs revenues 
and put out bonds, helping themselves and associates to load the island with 



CUBA AFTER THE WAK. 161 

a deLtj five-sixths without value received, and tlius put fetters upon the industry of 
the people and work up a system of profligate financiering for the benefit of the few 
against the many. The people of Cuba are with Gomez. The popular demonstra- 
tions in his favor as against the Assembly in Havana were overwhelming, and 
those who would jjlace the liberated people again in Ijondage to a Junta Assembly 
are powerless, while the old hero of the war, still leading in a righteous cause, is 
again a conqueror. 



CHAPTER II. 
THE ISLAND OF CL'BA. 

Official Information About the Island That Is of the Greatest Importance to Pul)lic 
Intelligence — Some Historical Facts — The Insurrections and Rebellions 
That Have Prevented the Development of the Island's Resources — The 
Jlilitary and Civil Governments — Climate, Soil and Productions — Sanitary 
Conditions and Prevailing Diseases — Abundance of Pestiferous Insects — 
Extensive Mineral Resources — Island Abounds in Valuable Woods — Classi- 
fication of the Inhabitants. 

The military notes on Cuba issued from the office of the Adjutant-General of 
the Army of the I'nited States, published in June, 1898, though containing 
a great deal of important information, were found imperfect and have been care- 
fully enlarged and perfected. The intention of the compilers and producers of 
the book is that it shall l)e used in connection with the Official Atlas of Cuba. 
This work is an example of the tlioroughness of the Adjutant-General's office 
that would be held in high esteem even by the painstaking German;^, who make 
preparation for war the most serious business of the coimtry. 

In proportion as our army is small, compared to its duties, is tlie necessity 
that the material sliall lie of the best and that there shall be minute and 
intimate knowledge of countries where our armies may be required by the 
national honor and the material necessities of the powers that are influential 
on the eartli. Wo ([uote liberally from the historical introduction of the matter 
that is military in charai-ter: 

'"The Ishiiid of Cuba was discovered October 28, 1492, by Cliristopher Colum- 
bus, who took possession of it in the name of Sj)ain. The first attempt at a per- 
manent settlement was made in loll Ijy Don Diego Columbus, a son of Christo- 
pher Columbus, and Dfego A^elas([uez, who landed at Baracoa witli 300 men. The 
first settlement, at Santiago de Cuba, was made in 1514, and the following year 
a settlement was made at Trinidad. 

"The island was first called Juaua. tlien Fernandina, and later Ave !Maria. 
It received its present name from the natives of the island, whom Columbus 
described as a peaceful, contented, and progressive race. Habana was founded 

162 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 1G:3 

on its present site in 1519. It was totally destroyed in 1538 by French i^rivateers, 
but was immediately rebuilt. The capital of the island was located at Santiago 
de Cuba until 1550, when it was moved to the city of Habana. The first governor 
of the i.sland was Fernando de Soto, afterwards famous as an explorer. In 1554 
the city of Habana was again destroyed by the French. 

"The early settlers devoted themselves principally to raising cattle, but in 
1580 the cultivation of tobacco and sugar cane was commenced, and this led 
to the introduction of negro slavery. 

"During the seventeenth century the island was kejit in a state of per- 
petual fear of invasions hj the French, Dutch, English, and tlie pirates who 
infested the seas. 

"In 17G2 the English, under Lord Albemarle, attacked the city of Habana, and 
on August 14, after a siege of two months, the city and island capitulated. By 
the treaty of Paris, February, 1703, Cuba was returned to Spain. 

"In 1790 Las Casas was appointed Captain-General, and during his regime 
the island passed through an epoch of prosperity and advancement. He inaugu- 
rated a system of jjublic improvements, built macadamized roads, laid out parks, 
erected many public buildings, and constructed fortifications, many of which are 
standing to-day. 

"In 1796 the Count of Santa Clara succeeded Las Casas, and he also took a 
great interest in the welfare of Cuba. 

"A royal decree was issued in 1835 giving the Ca])tain-General of Cuba 
absolute control, making him subject only to the reigning power of Spain. Tlie 
consequence has been that since that time Cuba has been ruled by a succession 
of autocrats, sent from the Peninsula, with no interest whatever in the welfare 
of the island or its people, save to raise a revenue for the crown greater than 
that of his predecessor, pay the expenses of his regime, enrich his own purse, and 
then return to Spain to be the envy of the grandees. 

"During the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth 
century a number of insurrections and revolts were instituted, but were successfully 
put dowTi by the Spaniards. The most important of these occurred in 1827-39, 
when Cuban refugees in Jlexico and the Ignited States planned an invasion of Cuba. 
They organized throughout Mexico, the L'nited States, and Colombia branches 
of a secret society known as the "Black Eagle." On account of the anti-slavery 
sentiment, which was beginning to show itself in these countries, the scheme 
proved a failure. 

"A more serious insurrection occurred in 1844, when the slaves on the sugar 



164 THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

plantations, especially in the Piovince of iliitanzas, revolted. They were finally 
siihdued. iinil nvcr 1,;!00 persons convicted and punished. 

"President Folk made a proposition in 1848 for the purchase of the island 
liy this Government for $100,000,000, but the proposition was withdrawn on 
account of the anti-slavery .sentiment of the North and West. 

"In 18.")4 jireparation was made in Cuba and the United States for another 
attempt at insurrection, but before the plans of the revolutionists were fully matured 
the leaders were betrayed, arrested, and executed. 

"During the ne.xt fourteen years the island enjoyed a period of comparative 
quiet and prosperity. 

"In 1808 a revolution broke nut in Spain, and in October the natives of Cuba 
took up arms and declared their independence. During this period many of the 
nations of the Western Hemisphere recognized the Cubans as belligerents. Spain 
did not succeed in putting down this rebellion until 1878. 

"About this time Spain was -engaged in wars with Morocco, Chili, Mexico, 
Peru, and Cochin China, and for the purpose of keeping up these wars Cuba was 
called on to furnish the larger portion of the means. Revenues were raised, and 
the poor Cubans taxed to the utmost, each paying from three to six dollars per 
cajjita. At one time the Cuban debt reached nearly a billion and a quarter of 
dollars, and for the past twenty years the island has been paying an annual 
revenue to the Crown of from $2.5,000,000 to $40,000,000. It was during this 
war that the American ship Yirginius was captured by the Spaniards, her cargo 
confiscated, and many of her passengers executed as revolutionists. This act 
nearly brought on a war Ijetween Spain and the United St^es. 

•^n 1880 slavery was totally abolished in the island. 

"During the latter part of the year 1894 another revolution broke out on 
the island. At first the Spaniards considered it nothing more serious than a riot, 
liut they soon found the revolution to be general ihrciughout the island and 
backed by the most influential of its citizens. It was a down-trodden people 
fighting for independence. 

"On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was blown up 
in the harbor of Habana. 

"So much sympathy had been shown by the citizens of this country for the 
Cubans and their cause that the Administration soon took a decisive step in the 
matter. By an Act of Congres.*, approved April 25, 1898, it was declared that war 
did exist, and had existed since April 21, 1898, between the United States and 
tlic Kingdom of Spain, wherenpen the President, in a proclamation dated April 



Till-: ISLAND OF CUBA. 165 

5ti, 1898, declared and proclaimed the existence of war. After au unprecedented 
campaign by the United States, SjJain asked for terms of peace, and on August 
] 2 an agreement was signed b}^ representatives of the two countries for a suspension 
of hostilities, and a committee appointed from each country to arrange the terms- 
ol peace. 

"Cuba is larger than all tlie rest of the Antilles put together. Its length, 
following a curved line through its center, is 730 miles, and its average breadth 
is 80 miles. Its area is 43,319 square miles. It is irregular, shaped somewhat like 
a half moon, long and narrow, extending from east to west, its convex part facing 
the north. It has a coast line of about 2,200 miles, or, including all indentations, 
nearly 7,000 miles. 

"It lies between 74° and 85° west longitude and 19° and 23° north latitude. 

It is situated at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico and divides that entrance intO' 

« 

two passages, that to the northwest being 130 English miles wide at the narrowest 
part, between the points of Ycacos, in Cuba, and Sable, on the Florida coast, and 
the southwest passage of nearly the same width, between the Cabo de San Antonio 
of Cuba, and the Cabo de Catoche, on the most salient extremity of the Peninsula 
iif Yucatan. It is bounded on the north by the Florida, Ocampo, and Old Bahama 
channels; on the east by the Strait of Maisi; on the south by the Strait of 
( 'oion and the sea of the Antilles; and on the west by the Strait of 
Yucatan. The neighboring countries are: On the north, Florida, 100 miles dis- 
tant; on the east, Haiti or San Domingo, 48 miles distant; on the south, Jamaica, 
87 miles distant, and on the west, the Peninsula of Yucatan, 124 miles distant. 

"Cuba and her -adjacent islands are of the utmost strategic importance. Situ- 
ated as the islands are, where the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico join, they 
are the keys which control that vast body of water between the tw;o Americas. 
And when the great canal of Nicaragua is completed, the occupancy and possession 
of Cuba will not only give us the control of the western Atlantic, but make us 
sovereigns over the eastern Pacific, as far as situation is concerned. 

"In case of war, during the invasion of our country by a foreign foe, our 
control of these islands would become almost a necessity for the protection of 
our southern coast. 

"The extent of the Cuban coast line, its numerous harbors, and the many 
directions from which it can be approached, are especially advantageous, for they 
convey power. They decrease the danger of a total blockade, to which all islands 
are subject, to a mininuim. 

"Regarded as a naval base. Cuba renders itself self-sup])orting by its ow-n 



166 THK ISLAND OF (TBA. 

products, and by the afciiimil;itiini of foreign im])ort?. Its peculiar shape is such 
that supplies can he conveyed from one point to another according to the needs 
of the fleet, on short notice, and its many magnificent bays and harbors could be 
used as a refuge for vessels where they could make repairs, obtain supplies, and 
concentrate their forces, safe from the scrutinizing gaze of the enemy, and at the 
same time protect the American ports along the gulf. On account of the close 
proximity of the island to the United States, its possession by a foreign power 
would be advantageous to its fleet in sustaining a blockade of our southern coast. 
On the other hand, our possession of the island would render such a blockade 
very difficult. 

"The island being situated midway between Xorth and South America, and 
being within easy sailing distance of the most important Atlantic ports of both 
Europe and America, as shown by the table of distances given below, makes it 
a good rendezvous for the mobilization of our naval forces, should it ever become 
necessary to establish a patrol of the Atlantic. 

TABLE OF DISTANCES FROM HABANA. 

Miles. 

Key West 100 

New Orleans 690 

Mobile 640 

Tampa 350 

Savannah 613 

Charleston 662 

Philadelphia 1,137 

New York 1,215 

Boston 1,348 

Quebec 2.421 

Vera Cruz '. 809 

Rio de Janeiro 3,536 

Buenos Ayres 4,653 

Montevideo 4,553 

Port of Spain 1,521 

Bermuda 1.150 

Gibraltar 4.030 

Plymouth (Eng.) 3,702 

"Cuba has enjoyed representation in tlie Spanisli Cortes since the passage of 
the act of .January 9, 1ST9. The Province of Habana sends three senators to 
Madrid, and each of the other five jirovinces two. The arclibishopric of Santiago 
sends one, the University of Ilabaua sends one, and the Society of the Friends of 
the Country one. Thirty de])uties, allotted according to population, are sent 
to the House of Deputies. These are elected by popular ballot, in tlic ratio of one 



THE ISLAND OF (TBA. 1G7 

representative for every 50,000 inhabitants. It is said that out of 30 deputies 
elected in 189fi, 26 were natives of Spain, and therefore the natives were in a 
hopeless minority, worse than the Irisli members in the British Parliament. The 
divisions of provinces and their parliamentary representation are regulated by the 
decree of June 9, 1878. 

"The military government has at its head a captain-general (ipso facto gov- 
ernor-general) with a Spanish army of 13,000 troops, paid out of the Culnin 
budget. 

"The captain-general is appointed by the Crown, usually for three or five 
years, with rank of lieutenant-general and full title of governor and captain- 
general. He is the supreme head of the civil, ecclesiastical, military, and naval 
organizations in the island. Tic has a council of administration of 30 members, 
15 appointed by the Crown and 15 elected by the provinces, according to popula- 
tion. These elections, however, are so controlled as to give the Spanish Govern- 
ment a safe majority of 25 to 5. To make this majority still more safe, the 
governor-general may suspend from one to fourteen at will, or all upon consulting 
a peculiar body called the "Council of Authorities." The members of this council 
serve without pay. Its duties are to prepare the budget and pass resolutions (quasi 
acts) on all necessary public matters. If the governor-general likes these resolu- 
tions he gives effect to them. 

"The council of authorities is composed of the archbishop of Santiago (when 
present), the bishop of Habana, the commanding officers of the army and navy, 
the chief justice of the Supreme Court of Habana, the attorney-general, the head 
of the department of finance, and the director of the local administration. The 
heads of executive departments are not members of this council, but the heads 
of departments are. They do not hold regular sessions,' hut are called together 
as occasion may require, but their conclusions have no binding effect. 

"The administration in each province is conducted by a governor, appointed 
by the Crown, who is an officer of the army of the rank of major-general or briga- 
dier-general, and is directly responsible to the governor-general. There is also 
in each province an elective assembly of not less than twelve nor more than twenty 
members, according to poi)ulatiou. They are elected for four years, and one-half 
the number are replaced every second year. The elections are held in the first half 
of September, and sessions twice a year. On meeting, the first business is to ballot 
for three candidates, from which list the captain-general appoints one as speaker. 
He may, however, disregard the names presented and appoint any other member. 
Moreover, the governor of the province may, at his pleasure, preside and vote; and 



Ui8 THE ISLAND UF ( TJ'.A. 

if, in liis judgment, tlie [niblic interest demantls it, he may prorogue the assembly 
and rej)ort his action to the governor-general. The latter has the authority to 
suspend any of tlie ]irovincial assemblies and report the fact to the Government 
at Madrid. 

'"Tlie jjrovineial governor nominates five members of the assembly, to be ap- 
pointed ](y the governor-general as a local council or cabinet. As, however, the 
powers and duties of the provincial governments are only equal to those of county 
boards in the Ignited States, it is easily seen that tlie home ride accorded to Cuba 
has its limits. 

"City governments are formed on the same general plan as the provincial. 
The l)oard of aldermen may consist of any number, from five to thirty inclusive, 
according to population. They elect one of their number as mayor, but the 
governor-general may substitute any other member. 

"The judicial S3'stem of Cuba includes two superior courts (audiencias), one 
sitting at Puerto Principe, for the two eastern provinces, and the other at Habana 
for the four western provinces. Inferior to these is a network of judicial districts 
and local magistracies. The judicial system is less important, because under the 
decree of June 9, 1878, the governor-general has authority to overrule any decision 
of any court, and even to suspend any law or order emanating from the Govern- 
ment at Madrid. 

"Cuba is generally low and swampy along its coast. Especially is this true 
of the southern coast, while the interior of the island is high table-land. 

"There are many mountain ranges in the interior, some reaching an elevation 
of over 6,000 feet above sea level. There are also a few ranges close to the coast 
in the provinces of Santiago de Cuba and Pinar del Rio. Wliile the mountain 
ranges as a rule run east and west, there are numerous short spurs at either 
extremity of the island which take a northeasterly and southwesterly direction,' 
and a few run north and soutli. There arc no known volcanoes in Cuba or in 
the Isle of Pines. 

"The various ranges will lie described under the ])rovinces in which they 
are located. 

"On account of the peculiar shajie of the island, being long and narrow, with 
its highlands in the interior, nearly all of the rivers flow to the nortli or soutli, and 
are therefore necessarily short. The majority of them are mere streams and 
creeks, rising in the mountains of the interior, and emptying into the sea on the 
north or south coast. There are few navigable rivers, and these for but a short 
distance from their mouths, and onlv for small coasters and canoes. The longest 



THE ISLAND OF CLBA. 169 

and most important river of Cuba is the Canto, in the province of Santiago de 
Cuba. 

"lu the interior there are many pretty lakes and bayous, and, while some of 
tlicm are very picturesque, like the rivers, they are of little importance commer- 
cially. Many of these hikes and bayous are salt-water bodies. 

"Situated within and near the border of the northern tropical zone, the climate 
of the low coast lands of Cuba is that of the torrid zone, but the higher interior of 
the island enjoys a more temperate atmosphere. As in other lands on the border of 
the tropics, the year is divided between a hot, wet season, corresponding to the 
northern declination of the sun, and a cool, dry period. From May to October 
is called the wet season, though rain falls in every month of the year. With 
May spring begins, rain and thunder are of almost daily occurrence, and the 
temperature rises high, with little variation. The period from Xovember to April 
is called the dry season. For seven j'ears the mean annual rainfall at Habana 
jn the wet season has been observed to be 27.8 inches, and of the dry months 12.7, 
or 40.4 inches for the year. The eastern part of the island receives more rain 
than the western. There are seldom over twenty rainy days in any one month, 
the average being from eight to ten. The rainfall is generally in the afternoon, 
and on an average there are only seventeen days in the year in which it rains 
in both forenoon and afternoon. At Ilabana, in the warmest months, those of 
July and August, the average temperature is 82° F., the ma.\imum being 88° 
and the minimum 76°; in the cooler months, December and January, the ther- 
mometer averages 72°, the maximum being 78° and the minimum 58°. The 
average temperature of the year at Habana, on a mean of seven years, is 77°; 
but in the interior, at elevations of over 300 feet above the sea, the thermometer 
occasionally falls to the freezing point in winter. Hoar frost is not uncommon, 
and during north winds thin ice may form, though snow is unknown in any part 
of the island. It hails frequently. The prevailing wind is the easterly trade 
breeze, but from Xovember to February cool north winds, rarely lasting more than 
fortv-eight hours, are experienced in the western portion of the island, by which 
is added a third seasonal change. From 10 to 12 o'clock are the hottest hours of 
the day; after noon a refreshing breeze sets in from the sea. Hurricanes may 
occur from August to October, but sometimes five or six years pass without such 
a storm. 



170 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 



"The following table shows the meteorological conditions at Habana: 

Condition of 
sky. 

Months. pera- Humidity. Jf^'g^ Rainfall. Cloudy Clear 

ture. • ■ days. days. 

° F. Per cent. Inches. 

January -71 82 8 2.5 5 26 

February 71 84 7 2.1 8 20 

March 74 82.8 G 2.4 7 24 

April 76 82.4 4 1.2 5 25 

May 78 S5 4 8 3.6 8 23 

.luce 81 So 10 5.1 6 24 

.Tu]y 82 87.6 12 5.6 6 25 

A ugust 82 88.2 12 4.8 6 25 

September 80 88.2 14 6 7 23 

October 79 85.2 9 3.2 7 24 

November 75 86.2 .1 3.3 8 22 

December 7."! 1 1 :< :; 1.2 7 24 

Means or totals 77 85.15 104 41.0 80 285 

"The wor.<t ]ilace for foreigners on their ;irri\al in ('ulm is the coast, and the 
important cities are generally located along the worst part of the coast. It is 
better to arrive in a cool season, and even then the heat will necessitate the 
changing of all woolen garments for those of linen or cotton. The sickly or 
iiulolent appearance of the whites of the loniitry is soon acijuired, activity and 
sjiirits diminish, the body becomes heavy, and the skin becomes covered with 
al'undant persjiiration, due to ana'niia, all of which shows that the person is becom- 
ing acclimated. This period will not usually exceed a year, during which time one 
shculd guard against any excess of work or ]ileasure, late evenings, bodily or 
ni( ntal fatigue, exposure to the sun, or rajiid cooling otf, or any cause that might 
jM'v.ducc illness. Exposure to the sun in an unhealthy country may bring on 
fever, which generally assumes the cliaiaeter of yellow fever; sudden cooling 
off is also the cause of many diseases. When the skin is covered with perspiration 
it shotdd not be exjiosed to a draft of t'ohl air. mir shoidd elothes saturated with 
water or perspiration be left on, l)ut sliould be changed, if possible, the body being 
first wijied dry and rubbed with cane luandy or rum. 

"Exercise on foot, horseback, or in a carriage is necessary for one who is 
visiting thi.- land for the first time, but only in the morning and evening; wash- 
ing and bathing are also very good, first in temperecl ami after a few days in 
cold water; baths should not be taken after hard work, and the best time is the 
morning or at noon, after the body has been at rest. 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. ITl 

''Wliik' ready perspiration is one of the essentials to tlie preservation of health, 
clanger also lurks in it, for when in such a condition, a few moments in the shade, 
exjiosed to a breeze, will bring on a cold more quickly here than in any other 
place outside the tropics. If it is noticed that the perspiration is stopping on a 
warm day, a jihysician .should be consulted immediately, and also in the case of 
giddiness, headache, etc. 

"Cotton garments are much better than those of linen, for they absorb less 
perspiration and render the skin less susceptible to chills. The soldiers of the 
French and English armies in the Antilles use flannel waistcoats to guard the 
liody as much as possible, and prevent evaporation, by keeping it always at an even 
temperature; this article of clothing is very suitable for those who are predisposed 
to chest ailments. 

"Tlie best field outfit is a light-weight pioncho of such proportions that it can 
be used for an external blanket, or, when spread over a hammock, forms a pro- 
tection from dew at night. This hammock cover should be a very light blanket, 
]iri>ferably of some other material than woolen, in order to discourage vermin. 

"As to food, the visitor should neither imitate the sober habits of the Creole, 
nor continue the diet ob.served at home, but he should adopt a medium, and use 
wholesome and nutritious meats, and the salt and fresh water fish that abound in 
these regions. He should not disdain the vegetables and plants wliich the Creoles 
do not like. It is also well to use certain condiments, such as pepper, cloves, 
allspice, cinnamon, and others that heighten and flavor food and aid digestion; 
thougli used, they should not be abused. The moderate use of certain tropical 
fruits to which northerners are accustomed, such as oranges, lemons, limes, and 
pineapples, is advantageous without question, but there are hosts of others, mostly 
of a soft, squashy nature, and a sweet, sickish taste, such as the mango, sapote,. 
alligator pear, etc., that it is wise to avoid. The combination of alcohol with 
them is almost deadly, and here, on its native heath, it is well to let the banana 
alone. 

"Persons from the north are always anxious to taste Cassava bread. It is- 
wise, therefore, to warn those not fully acquainted, with the poisonous character 
of the root from which it is made not to try experiments in this direction unless 
satisfied that the product is made by some loyal Cuban who is familiar with the 
substance that is being dealt with. 

"Excess in eating and drinking should be avoided, as it produces intestinal 
disorders which result in grave diseases. The slow and continuous use of alcohol 
causes a marked deterioration in the constitution, being one of the greatest 



i:2 THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

obstacles to acclimatization; it diminishes the appetite and retards aeclinializa- 
tion. However, a little mm mixed with water is a stimulating and wliolesome 
drink, especially on hot days. Soft drinks and lemonade are not good, as they 
cause a kind of plethora whic-li turns into diarrhu'a. Fruits produce the same 
effect, and it is necessary to l)e careful of the least indisposition which tends 
toward diarrha-a. 

"Ill Cuba the slightest wounds on the legs or feet quickly ulcerate. A scratch, 
wliiih might be t-ured by two or three days' rest, turns into an ulcer from con- 
tinual marching and friction, and a soldier is soon unfitted for service. 

"The following suggestions regarding health will be found usefnl: 

"Xever start out early in the morning without having taken at least a cup 
of cofifce, but do not eat heartily at that time. 

"Breakfast should be taken before the troops are called upon for marching, 
work, or exercise of any kind, ileals should be taken at regular hours, and should 
be warm. Xo raw food of any kind should ever be eaten. Hot coffee and a biscuit 
should be eaten by each man before going on guard at night. 

"Only boiled water should be used for drinking: if one must mareli during 
the day, he should fill his canteen with coffee or tea before starting out; this 
will insure the water having been boiled. Xo intoxicating liquor of any kind 
should be drunk. Drink cocoannt milk in preference to anything else. 

"Do the hardest work of the day between and 11 in the morning, then 
eat breakfast, take a siesta, and remain c[iiiet until 3 P. M. Avoid the midday 
sun as much as jiossible, but if exposed to it, be careful in cooling off. All 
marching should, if possible, be avoided during the heat of the day. 

"Dress lightly, avoiding woolen, medical statements to the contrary notwith- 
standing. Protect the legs, preferably with canvas leggings. 

"Always examine your bed and lilniikets l)L'fiire retiring. If possible, bedding 
should lie aired daily. 

".\lways have quinine and antiseptics with you. Tlie former should be taken 
every morning before breakfast. 

"^len should not be allowed to sleep on the ground, if it can possibly be 
avoided: a hammock should lie used, on which a poncho should be placed beneath 
the other bedding. 

"If occujiying a house, the windows and doors should be closed at dusk. 

"Avoid getting wet, and change wet clothes as soon as possible; never put 
on dam]i clothing. Alternate with two suits of underclothing, allowing tlie under- 
suit worn one day to hang and dry during the next. 



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THE ISLAND OF CTBA. 175 

"Straw hats should be worn during the day, but at niglit tlic mm i^liduld wear 
some sort of cap which they can keep on tlieir heads while sk'eping. 

"When in camp all refuse from the kitchen should be burned; latrines should 
be inspected daily, and disinfected as far as possible. 

"The gravest as well as the most common of the diseases in Cuba are tlie 
following: 

"Yellow fever, diarrhoea, dysentery, and paludism (swamp or malarial fever), 
to which must l)e added liver complaints, which often accompany them, and 
diseases produced by certain insects and worms. Traumatic and infantile tetanus, 
convulsions, intermittent fevers, smallpox, and phthisis are frequent, as well as 
cardiac affections. Cases of pneumonia, strangles, and hydrophobia are rare. 

"Every foreigner, upon arriving in Cuba, .shoidd observe a severe regime in 
his manner of living until he has become acclimated. He must impoverish his 
blood to an extent which in other climates might cripple his health, hut rich blood, 
so enviable in northern countries, is injurious in Cuba. He will inevitably have 
to suffer the "vomito" or acclimating fever; in order to prevent this from turning 
into yellow fever (vomito negro), he must jnirge himself thoroughly upon his 
arrival, preferring for the purpose acid jmrgatives. He must drink no coffee or 
alcoholic drinks. At his meals, which ought to lie as plain as possible, he should 
drink water mixed with a little wine. Orangeade or lemonade are very good if 
taken before breakfast or between meals, but they are very injurious if taken 
during the process of digestion. He should Itathe frequently in lukewarm water; 
cold water may be more agreeable, but it is very injurious. 

"Fear and apprehension are fatal to this disease. One should remember that, 
if hygiene be observed, "the vomito" is not always dangerous, and that many 
have passed through it without realizing serious effects. 

"The symptoms of this disease are always alike. The first day there is a 
great headache and sometimes dizziness. On the second day all the bones of the 
body ache as in the grip, and when the pain fi.xes itself in the hips and about the 
waist the pulse becomes altered. T'pon feeling the first headache, one should 
refrain from eating. If it is three hours since the last meal, there should be taken 
immediately, even before the doctor's arrival, a strong purgative of oil, although 
a purgative of lemonade or citrate of magnesia may have been taken the day before. 
One or the other of the above remedies should be taken once a week after arriving 
in Cuba. The day on which tlu> weekly ])urgative is taken a strict diet should be 
observed. T'ntil acclimated it is well not to dance or become overheated in any 
■wav. 



176 THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

"It may be stated of yellow fever that, if properly treated, less than 8 per 
cent of the patients die. The remedies ordinarily used are citrate of magnesia or 
castor oil and lime juice. In general, the yellow fever epidemic appears every 
ten years. It is well, if possible, to leave the coast regions and go to the moun- 
tainous ones, as the fever seldom goes beyond certain altitudes. 

"Tetanus, or lock jaw, is the most fatal of the diseases uhich attack unaccli- 
mated persons, especially those whose work involves much exposure to the weather. 
Injuries to the feet are exceedingly prone to result in tetanus. Any injury to 
the foot sliiiuld lie very carefully looked after, and open sores should be guarded 
from the wet. 

"Intermittent fever is usually contracted in the swampy districts. There is 
little use in keeping the patient on the island after the fever has been contracted; 
he should be gotten away as soon as possible. This is also true of all the forms 
of malaria. 

"Leprosy is a disease that prevails to a considerable extent, and it is said 
there are more lepers in Cuba than in the Sandwich Islands. In the opinion 
of a physician from Toledo, Ohio, no white man is liable to its attacks, though 
he advised avoiding too clo.se contact with those afflicted, especially with the 
Chinese, who frequently have it, but who conceal the fact as long as possible. That 
form of it known as elephantiasis, producing abnormal swelling of the lower 
extremities, is frequently seen in the streets of Habana, and is in no sense con- 
sidered contagious. 

"While much that has been written concerning Cuba would seem to indicate 
that it is a veritable pest hole, such descriptions actually cover only the worst 
conditions, and comparatively a small portion of the island, for probably at least 
two-thirds of it is as healthy, even in the summer, as any country in the world. 

"Cases of longevity are not wanting; there are numerous instances where 
natives have attained 100 years, some 130 years, and there is even one known to have 
lived to the age of 150. Longevity is most frequent among the colored population. 

"The sickly season, according to the latest edition of 'The Navigation of the 
Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico,' is as follows: 

"Fevers, more or less malignant, prevail from May to November. 

"Baracoa.- — Eemittent fever is at times prevalent at Baracoa. but the place is 
generally healthy, owing to the exposed position. 

"Nuevitas del Principe. — The health of the city is good, the sickly season 
being from April to September. 

"Habana. — Yellow fever is endemic. The sickly season is from June to Octo- 



THE ISLA^'D OF CUBA. 17^ 

ber. As there is little ebb and flow of the tide in the harbor, the water is filthy 
and foul smelling. The water should not be used for washing decks or clothing. 

"Bahia Honda.- — The health of the place is good, except in the sickly season, 
which commences in April and lasts through the summer. 

"Port Mariel. — It is generally healthy, the sickly season being from April 
to September. 

"Santiago de Cuba. — The place is healthy, but in summer yellow fever occurs. 
The mornings and afternoons are pleasant. Liberty to go ashore should not be 
given here. 

"Cienfuegos. — The sanitary condition is good, the city being clean. 

"Yellow fever has a})peared in the island at various times and points as 
follows: 

"1. Habana. — Annual prevalence since 1761, the chief center of infection, 
and most dangerous to shipping. 

"3. Matanzas. — Annual prevalence since 1828, and probably much longer; 
an important center of infection, but less dangerous to shipping than Habana. 

"3. Cardenas. — Annual prevalence certainly since 1836, and it was not 
founded until 1828. It is an iin])ortant center of infection, but not specially 
dangerous to shipping, because of the distance at which vessels anchor from shore. 

"4. Cienfuegos. — Annual prevalence since at least 1839, and it was not 
founded until 1819-1825. It is a dangerous center of infection, but, like Ma- 
tanzas, has a very large harbor, and is less dangerous than Habana to shipping. 

"5. Sagua. — Some cases of yellow fever occur annually, but vessels are very 
rarely infected, as these anchor several miles distant from the coast, and Sagua is 
ten miles inland. 

"6. Baracoa. — Yellow fever occurs occasionally, but not annually as an 
epidemic. 

"7. Caibarien. — Cases of yellow fever occur frecjuently, but not every year. 
Very little danger to vessels, as these anchor many miles distant. 

"8. Trinidad. — Annual prevalence certainly since 1838, and probably longer. 
The harbor is not believed to be specially dangerous to vessels. 

"9. Santiago de Cuba. — Annual prevalence certainly since 1851, and prob- 
ably very much longer. It is a noted center of infection, and its small harbor is 
more dangerous to the shipping than any other port in the whole island. 

"10. Manzanillo. — Annual prevalence. It is in constant communication with 
Santiago de Cuba, Trinidad, and Cienfuegos. As vessels anchor in the open sea sev- 
eral miles from shore, they probably suffer little. 



178 THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

"11. Las Nuevitas del Principe. — Annual prevalence. Vessels anchor a mile 
or more distant, and are in but little danger. 

"12. Guantanamo. — Annual prevalence. The town is about seven miles from 
the harbor, and vessels are probably little exposed to infection. 

'"13. Gibara. — Cases of yellow fever do not occur every year. Vessels anchor 
distant from the shore, and are in little danger. 

'"14. Zaza. — Cases of yellow fever do not occur every year. Vessels are 
probably in very little danger. 

"15. Santa Cruz. — Cases of yellow fever occur in the majority of years. Ves- 
sels anchor far from shore, and are in little danger. 

"16. Bahia Honda. — Yellow fever is not endemic; it is even said to be 
'unknown," and to present no cases 'either indigenous or imported." 

"17. Batabano. — Verj' few cases occur. 

"18. Cabanos.- — Cases occur very rarely, and the disease is not endemic. 

"19. Isla de Pinos. — Cases occur very seldom, and it is as remarkably free 
as Bahia Honda from the disease. 

"20. Mariel. — Yellow fever is not endemic here. 

"21. Puerto Padre. — The disease is not endemic. 

"22. Bayamo. — Occasionally epidemic, but not annually endemic. 

"23. Bejucal. — Suffers little from yellow fever. 

"24. Ciego de Avila. — Xot endemic. 

"25. Cobre. — Yellow fever is not endemic. 

"26. Colon. — Yellow fever is not endemic. 

"27. Guanabacoa. — Cases occur annually. 

"28. Guanajay. — Cases occur in the majority of years. 

"29. Guines. — Yellow fever is not endemic. 

"30. Holguin. — Several epidemics since 1851, but cases do not occur every 
year. 

"31. Jucaro. — Endemic. 

"32. Marianao. — Endemic. 

"33. Mayari. — Not endemic. 

"34. Palma Soriano. — Not endemic. 

"35. Pinar del Rio. — Not endemic. 

"36. Puerto Principe. — Endemic. 

"37. Remedios. — Endemic. 

"38. San Antonio. — Endemic. 

"39. Sancti Spiritus.— Endemic. 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. r.D 

"40. San Jose de las Lajas. — Endemic. 

"41. Santa Clara. — Cases occur in the majority of years. 

"42. Santiago. — Endemic. 

"43. Victoria de las Tnnas. — Cases occur in the majority of years. 

"The above forty-three places are all those from which trustworthy informa- 
tion was secured, and it appears that of twenty-one seaports, yellow fever occurs 
annually in ten of them and does not occur annually in the remaining eleven, 
while in the twenty-two inland towns its prevalence varies in proportion to the 
extent of their commerce with permanently infected centers and with the number 
of immigrants, so that the above list tends very strongly to prove that seaports in 
Cuba are no more liable to yellow fever, solely because located on the sea, than 
are inland towns. Yet the contrary has long bjen taught. 

"The Isle of Pines, Bahia Honda, Cabanas, Mariel, Zaza, and other pre- 
eminently maritime jilaces in Cuba suffer little, if at all, with yellow fever. 

"Among the poisonous insects are centipedes, tarantulas, scorpions, mosqui- 
toes, and sand flies. 

"Of flies alone over 300 species are known. The one most to be dreaded 
is called rodador (the roller), thought by the people to be a mosquito, which fills 
itself with blood like a leech and when satiated drops off and rolls away. Still 
worse is the jejen (another supposed mosquito), so small as not to be visible to 
the naked eye, but its sting is felt. Neither nets, smoke nor any other defenses 
are of any avail against it. The only recourse is flight. 

"An annoying and dangerous pest is found in the chigoe or jigger, a small 
insect closely resembling the common flea. The female burrows under the skin 
of the foot or under the finger or toe nails, and soon acquires the size of a pea, its 
body being distended with eggs. If these eggs be allowed to hatch underneath the 
skin, irritating and dangerous sores result. The insect must be extracted entire 
and with great care as soon as its presence is discovered. Similar precautions 
must be taken in regard to common ticks, which abound especially in fields where 
hogs have been allowed to run at large. The wound made by extracting a chigoe 
or a tick should be carefully washed, coal oil applied, and outside moisture excluded 
for at least forty-eight hours. 

"The only peculiar animal in the island is the jutia, shaped like a rat and 
from twelve to eighteen inches long, exclusive of the tail. A few deer are found 
about the swamps, but they are supposed to have been introduced from Europe. 
The woods abound in wild dogs and cats, sprung from those animals in a domestic 



180 Till': ISLAND OF CUBA. 

state and differing from them only in form and size. Of domestic animals, the 
ox, the horse, and the hog are the most valuable and form a large proportion of 
the wealth of the island; sheep, goats, and mules are less numerous. There are 
some 4,000,000 head of the domestic animals just mentioned. The raanati (sea-cow) 
frequents the shore. The domestic fowls include geese, turkeys, peacocks, and 
pigeons. There are over 200 species of indigenous birds, and more than TOO kinds 
of fish in the rivers, bays and inlets. Xumorous insects and nonvenomous reptiles 
inhabit the woods and mountains. 03-sters and other shellfish are numerous, but 
of inferior quality. Turtles abound, and the cayman (crocodile) and iguana (a 
kind of lizard) are common. Snakes are not numerous. The maja, twelve or 
fourteen feet in length, and eighteen or twenty inches in circumference, is the 
largest, but is harmless; the Juba, which is about six feet long, is venomous. 

"The domestic animals let |oose in the island from the earliest period of its 
occupation have found a place favorable for their reproduction; but, while in- 
creasing, they have also undergone certain modifications. Cuban horses of the 
Andalusian race have lost in stature and breadth of chest, but they have gained 
in sobriety, endurance, and vitality. Before the great insurrection of 18G8 they 
were so numerous throughout the island, and especially in the central and western 
regions, that nobody traveled afoot. To-day the number of saddle animals has 
greatly diminished in proportion to the inhabitants, and nowhere are wild horses 
found, as they formerly were in Romano Cay, in the Xipe savannas, and other 
isolated regions. Asses are not numerous, being kept mainly for breeding pur- 
poses. Mules are used for transportation in the mountainous regions. The camel 
of the Canaries, which was introduced at one time, did not succeed, owing to 
the niguas, a species of insect which wounded its feet. In certain parts of the 
island, especially in the district of Baracoa, the ox is used both as a beast of 
burden and in driving. Goats and sheep have not thrived so well in Cuba as 
hogs and cattle; the goat has lost its vivacity, while the sheep, being poorly cared 
for, has replaced its fleece by a coat of hair. 

"The larger portion of the following description is taken from Humboldt's 
Narrative, Vol. YII. Although the work is old, yet it is still the best authority 
on the above subjects obtainable: 

"The Island of Cuba, for more than four-fifths of its extent, is composed of 
low lands. The soil is covered with secondary and tertiary formations, formed 
by rocks of gneiss, granite, syenite, .and euphotide. The island is crossed from 
east-southeast to west-northwest by a chain of hills, which approach the southern 
coast between the meridians of the cities of Puerto Principe and Villa Clara; 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 181 

while more to the west, near Alvarez and Matanzas, they stretch toward the 
northern coast, going from the mouth of the Eio Grande to Villa de la Trinidad. 
The hills of San Juan on the northwest form needles or horns more than 900 feet 
high, from which declivities go regiilarly toward the south. This calcareous group 
has a majestic aspect, seen from the anchorage near Cayo de Piedras. Sagua and 
Batabano are low coasts, and west of the meridian of Matanzas there is no hill 
more than 1,200 feet high, with the exception of Pan de Guai.xabon. The land of 
the interior is generally undulating, and rises from 250 to 325 feet above sea-level. 

"The decreasing level of the limestone formations of the Island of Cuba toward 
the north and west indicates a submarine connection of those rocks with the 
lands equally low of the Bahama Islands of Florida and of Yucatan. 

"It is probable that the alluvial deposits of auriferous sand, which were 
explored with so much ardor at the beginning of the Spanish conquest, came from 
the granite formations in the western part of the island. Traces of the sand are 
still to be found in the Holguin and Escambray rivers. 

"The central and western portions of the island contain two formations of 
cornpact limestone, one of clayey sandstone, and another of gypsum. The former 
is white, or of a clear oclire yellow, with dull fractures, sometimes conchoidal, 
and sometimes smooth, and furnishes petrifications of pecten cardites, terebellidae 
and madrepores. Xo oolitic beds are found, but porous beds almost bulbous are 
seen near Batabano. Yellowish, cavernous strata, with cavities from three to 
four inches in diameter, alternate with strata altogether compact and poorer in 
petrifications. 

"The chain of hills that borders the jilain of Giiines towards the north belongs 
to the latter varietj', which is reddish-white and almost lithographic. The com- 
pact and cavernous beds contain pockets of brown ochraeeous iron. Perhaps the 
red earth so much sought after by tlie planters of coffee is produced by the decom- 
position of some superficial beds of oxidized iron mixed with silica and clay, or, 
perhaps, by reddish sandstone superposed on limestone. The whole of this forma- 
tion might be designated as the limestone of Giiines, to distinguish it from another 
much more recent. It forms, in the hills of San Juan, steep declivities, resem- 
bling the mountains of limestone of Coripe in the vicinity of Cumana. They 
contain great caverns, the most prominent being near Matanzas and Jaruco. There 
are numerous caverns, and where the pluvial waters accumulate and disappear in 
small rivers, they sometimes cause a sinking of the earth. 

"To the secondary soil belongs the gypsum of the island. It is worked in 
several ]ilaces. We must not confound this limestone of Giiines, sometimes 



182 TUE ISLAND OF CUBA. 

porous, sometimes compact, witli another formation so roceut that it seems to have 
augmented in our days, i. e., the calcareous agglomerates, on the islands that 
border the coast between Batabano and the Bay of Xagua. 

"At the foot of Castillo de la Punta are shelves of cavernous rocks, which 
are covered with verdant alva? and living polypiers. Enormous masses of madre- 
pores and other lithophyte corals are set in the texture of those shelves. Tliis 
would lead one to the conclusion that the whole of this limestone rock, which 
constitutes the greater part of the island, is due to the uninterrupted action of 
productive organic forces, an action which is still in operation in the depths of 
the ocean; but tiiese limestone formations soon vanish when the shore is quitted, 
and series of coral rocks are seen, containing formations of different ages — the 
muschelkalk, the Jura limestone, and the coarse limestone. The same coral rocks 
as those of Castillo and La Punta are found in the lofty inland mountains, accom- 
panied by petrifications of bivalve shells, very different from those which arc 
actually seen on the coasts of the Antilles. There is no doubt as to the relative 
antiquity of that rock, with respect to the calcareous agglomerates of the Cayos. 
The globe has undergone great revolutions between the periods when those two 
soils were formed, one containing the great caverns, the other daily augmenting 
by the agglomeration of fragments of coral and (juartzous sand. 

"On the south of the Island of Cuba the latter of these soils seems to be 
superposed, sometimes on the .Tura limestone of Giiines, and sometimes imme- 
diately on the primitive rocks. 

"The secondary formations on the east of Habana are pierced in a singular 
manner by syenitic and cuphotide rocks, united in groups. The southern lioitom 
of the bay, as well as the mouth, are of Jura limestone, but on the eastern bank of 
the Ensenadas de Regla and Guanabacoa the whole is transition soil. In going 
from north !o south we find syenite, composed of a great quantity of amphibole, 
partly decomposed, a little (piartz, and a reddish-white feldspar, seldom crystal- 
lized. Farther south, toward the small bays of Regla and Guanabacoa, the syenite 
disappears, and the whole soil is covered with serpentine, rising in hills from 190 
to 255 feet high, and running from east to west. 

"This rock is nuich fissured, externally of a iihiish brown, lovcrcd with detritus 
of manganese, and internally of a leek and asparagus green, crossed by small veins 
of asbestos. It contains neither granite nor hornblende, but metalloide diallage 
is disseminated throughout the mass. Many of the pieces of serpentine have 
magnetic poles. In approaching Guanabacoa, the serpentine is crossed by vein.s 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 183 

from twelve to fourteen inches thick, filled with fibrous quartz, amethyst, line 
mammelones and stalactiform chalcedoniee. 

"Some copper pyrites appear among these veins, accompanied, it is said, by 
silvery gray copper. In some places petroleum runs out from rents in the ser- 
pentine. Springs of water are frequent, containing sulphureted hydrogen, and a 
deposit of oxide of iron. 

"Volcanic rock of a more recent period, as trachyte, dolerite, and basalt, has 
not been discovered "on the island. 

"The Island of Cuba has a great variety of minerals, gold, silver, iron, copper, 
lead, asphaltum, antimony, platinum, petroleum, marble, jasper, etc., being found 
in a greater or less quantity. As yet, no coal has been found, although a substance 
resembling it is much used as fuel, and generally called coal by the natives. Gold 
and silver have not been found in paying quantities, although the early settlers 
mined a considerable amount of each. 

"Lead. — So little seems to be produced that it is unnecessary to consider the 
output. 

"Iron. — Large deposits are found in the province of Santiago de Cuba and 
Pinar del Kio. Its output to the United States is very large. 

"Copper.- — Large deposits are founded in Santiago de Cuba, but have not 
been much mined, on account of the revolution and heavy taxes. 

"Asphaltum. — Deposits of asphaltum are of frequent occurrence in various 
parts of the island, and have been mined and exported to some extent. 

"Antimony. — Antimony, with lead, is .said to exist near Holguin. 

"Petroleum. — Crude oil is found, luit the mineral oil in use comes from the 
United States in the crude state. There are several refineries near Habana. 

"Sulphur. — Deposits of pure sulphur probably do not exist, but the presence of 
sulphur is shown in the various mineral springs. 

"Salt. — Salt is deposited in great quantities in various parts of the island. 

"Quicksilver. — It is said that in former times some quicksilver was found 
near Remedios. 

"Clays. — Valuable deposits of clays are found, especially in the Isle of Pines. 

'^^ime. — ilost of the soft limestones make excellent lime, and about Habana 
are many limestone cjuarries and amongst them kilns for burning. 

"Building Stone. — A soft carbonate of calcium is very common, and is much 
used for building material on the island. 

"Ochre. — Some ochre is found in Maiizanillo, Santiago de Cuba, Santa Maria 
del Rosario, and Guanaba'eoa. 



184 THE ISLAXn OF CUBA. 

"Chrome. — Deposits of tlils pigment have l)een worked near Holguin. 

"Chalk. — Chalk is found near ilanzanillo and Moron. 

"Marble. — This is foimd in great abundance in many places. 

"Loadstone. — Large quantities of loadstone also exist. 

"Molding Sand. — Xear Xueva Filipiua a line quality of molding sand is 
found. 

"Talc. — Talc is also found in the island. 

"It is estimated that there are about 20,0()(),lil)0 acres of wild and uncullivated 
land in the Island of Cuba, 12.000,000 acres of which are virgin forest. These 
forests are to a great extent dense and almost impenetrable in some sections, espe- 
cially the eastern portion of Santa C'lara Province, Puerto Princi]ie, and some 
parts of Santiago de Cuba. The Isle of Pines is also heavily wooded. The forests 
preserve their verdure throughout all seasons of the j'car. 

"The palm is the most common of all the Culian tivcs, iintl. jierbaps. the 
most valuable. There are a great many varieties. Of these the Palma Real 
(Royal Palm) is the most common, and, like the maguey of Mexico, is the main- 
stay of the natives. The other woods of importance are the mahogany: ebony; 
cedar; acaiia. a tree witli a haul reddish wood; ginel)raliacha, a kind of fir; giiaya- 
can; jigui; maranon. a tree which yields a gum resembling gum arabic; oak: ])ino 
de tea, a torch pine; evergreen oak: sabicu; ocuje. a wood much used for con- 
struction ])urposes; sabina; nogal; walnut; majagua, a tree from which very dural)le 
cordage is made; Brazilian wood; capeche wood: fustic; cocoa; banana, and the 
magnificent cieba. 

"The lands most celebrated for their fertility are the districts of Sagua^ Cien- 
fuegos, Trinidad, IMatanzas, and Mariel. The Valley of Giiines owes its reputa- 
tion to artificial irrigation. Notwithstanding the want of great rivers, and the 
unequal fertility of the soil, the Island of Cuba, due to its undulating .surface, 
its continually renewing verdure, and the distribution of its vegetable forms, 
presents at every step the most varied and beautiful landscajie. 

"The agriculturists of the island distinguish two kinds of eartli, often mixed 
together like the squares of a draft board, black earth, clayey and full of moisture, 
and red earth, more silicious and mixed with oxide of iron. 

'"The black earth is generally jireferred for the cultivation of the sugar cane, 
because it conserves humidity better, and the red earth for cotfee; nevertheless, 
many sugar plantations are established in red soil. 

"The section around Habana is not the most fertile, and the few sugar plan- 
tations that existed in the vicinity of the capital are now replaced by cattle farms 



THE ISLAND OF CUBA. 185 

and field? of maize and forage, on which tlic profits are considerable, on account 
of the demand from tlie city. 

"The principal aj:ricultural products of Cuba are sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, 
cocoa, cotton, sarsaparilla, vanilla, copal, China root, Cassia, Palma Christi, mustard, 
pepper, ginger, licorice, balsam de Guatemala, India rubber, etc. The three most 
im]iortant are sugar, tobacco, and coffee. 

"The fruits of Cuba are numerous and delicious. Among them are the 
pineapple, custard apple, cocoanut, plum, guava, banana, orange (the Cuban 
orange is not particularly fine), citron, lemon, mango, etc. 

"While the area of Cuba and its dependent islands is nearly as great as that 
of the State of Pennsylvania,* it has less than one-third as many inhabitants. Yet, 
when it is borne in mind that the desert sand-keys that skirt the island, the 
impassable swamps that line its south coast, and the rugged and unexplored 
uplands of its eastern extremity, altogether occupy fully one-fifth of its area, 
it is seen that Cuba is fairly well inhabited. Estimating its habitable area at 
32,500 scjuare miles, it is seen to be twice as densely populated as the State of 
Missouri,! or in about the same ratio as Virginia. J 

"Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Cuba, none survived to see the seventeenth 
century. The present population may be divided into five classes: 

"1. Natives of Sj)ain — "Peninsulars." 

"2. Cubans of Spanish descent — 'Insulars.' 

"3. Other white persons. 

"4. Persons wholly, or in part, of the African race. 

"5. Eastern Asiatics. 

"By reckoning the first three classes together and excluding the fifth entirely 
the usual division of whites and negroes is obtained. It has been customary to 
reckon among negroes persons having one-fourth, one-half, or three-fourths white 
blood, and there is no end to the subdivision. This is philosojihically unjust and 
makes the negro element appear larger than it really is. It is also to be remem- 
bered that the blood of the Latin nations mingles with tliat of other races more 
readily than does the Saxon. The following statistics of the two main races at 
different dates show the percentage of negroes: 



*Area of Pennsylvania. 45,215 square miles: estimated population 1894. 5.550,550. 
Area of Cuba, 43,124 square miles; estimated population in 1894. 1,723,000. 
t State of Missouri: Area, 69,415 square miles; population, 1,875,900. 
t State of Virginia: Area, 42,450 square miles; population, 1,705,198. 



18li TlIK ISLAND 01" ClISA. 



Year. White. Negro. Per cent. 

1804 234,000 198,000 isii 

1819 239,830 213.203 47 

1830 332.352 423.343 56 

1841 418,291 589,333 58.4 

1850 479.490 494,252 50.75 

1860 632,797 566.632 47 

1869 797,596 602.215 43 

1877 985,325 492.249 33 

1887 1,102,689 485,187 30.55 

"It is especially worthy of note that lor thirty or forty years the negro 
•element has been both relatively and ahsolntely decreasing, and probably at the 
present time it composes a little more than one-fourth of the whole population. 

"The number iif white ])ersons of other blood than Spani.«h is trifling, and 
has been estimated at 10,500. 

"There is yet another class of })opulation — the coolies, or Asiatic laborers 
imported from the Philippines. The statements of their numbers are so con- 
flicting as to be a mere guess; Ijut that guess would ]iut iheni at 30,000 to 10,000. 

"The most recent official census is that of December, 1887. The figures in 
the following table are taken from it, and give the population by provinces, as well 
as the density of pojiulation (number of inhabitants per square kilometer) in each: 

Provinces. Inhabitants. T-i'^^^'^fo,. Density. 

Kilometers. ' 

Pinar del Rio 225,891 14,967 15.09 

Habana 451,928 8,610 52.49 

Matanzas 259,578 8,486 30.59 

Santa Clara 354,122 23,083 15.34 

Puerto Principe 67,789 32,341 2.10 

Santiago de Cuba 272,379 35,119 7.76 

Totals 1,631,687 122,606 13.31 

"The only language spoken in the island is Spanish. 

"The Roman Catholic has been the only religion tolerated. There are no 
Jewish or Protestant places of worship, while a person comidyiug witli all the 
requirements might be permitted to remain on the island, he would not be allowed 
to promulgate doctrines at variance with those of the established church. Catholi- 
cism is supported by the general revenues of the island, and all the items of 
expense are determined at iladrid. The anunmt estimated in the Cuban budget 
of 1893-94 is $385,588. 

"The educational system of Cuba, under Sjianish rule, is under the direction 
of the governor-general and rector of the University of Habana, both being natives 
of Spain and apjiointed by the Crown." 



CHAPTER III. 

THE CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 

Santiago de Cuba, the Ancient Citj' of the Island — Location and Commercial Im- 
portance — Its Strategic Position and Defenses as Set Forth in the United 
States Military Notes — Havana, the Capital and Largest City in Cuba — Its 
Defenses, Water Supply and Sanitary Condition — Density of Population. 

There was the fortune of good judgment in attacking the Spaniards in Cuba 
at Santiago and Porto Eico, the points of Spanish possession in the West Indies 
farthest south and east, instead of striking at the west, landing at Pinar del Rio, 
the western province, and moving upon the fortifications of Havana, where the diffi- 
culties and dangers that proved so formidable at Santiago would have been quad- 
rupled, and our losses in the field and hospital excessive. The unpreparedness of this 
country for war has not even up to this time been appreciated except by military 
experts and the most intelligent and intent students of current history. The mili- 
tary notes prepared in the War Department of the United States at the beginning 
of the war with Spain, contain the following of Santiago de Cuba: 

This city was founded in 1514, and the famous Hernando was its first mayor. It 
is the most southern place of any note on the island, being on the twentieth degree 
of latitude, while Havana, the most northern point of note, is 23 degrees 9 minutes 
,26 seconds north latitude. The surrounding country is very mountainous, and the 
city is built upon a steep slope; the public square, or Campo de Marte, is 140 to 
160 feet above the sea, and some of the houses are located 200 feet high. The charac- 
ter of the soil is reported to be more volcanic than calcareous; it has suffered re- 
peatedly from earthquakes. It is the second city in the island with regard to popu- 
lation, slightly exceeding that of Matanzas and Puerto Principe. So far as Ameri- 
can commerce is concerned, it ranks only ninth among the fifteen Cuban ports of 
entry. It is located on the extreme northern bank of the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, 
a harbor of the first class and one of the smallest; hence, as is believed, the great lia- 
bility of its shipping to infection. According to the chart of the Madrid hydro- 
graphic bureau, 1863, this harbor is, from its sea entrance to its extreme northern 
limit, a miles long, the city being located 4 miles from its entrance, on the north- 
eastern side of the harbor. The entrance is for some little distance very narrow — 

187 



188 ( ITIKS OF THE QFEKN (iF TIIF AXTIFLFS. 

not more than 220 yards wide — and may be considered about 2 miles long, with 
a width varying from one-eighth to five-eighths of a mile. For the remaining 3 
miles the harbor gradually widens, until at its northern extremity it is about 2 miles 
wide. The city is so situated in a cove of the harbor that the opposite shore is 
only about one-half mile distant. At the wharves from 10 to 15 feet of water is 
found, and within 3U0 to oOO yards of the shore from 20 to 30 feet. This, therefon-, 
is probably the anchorage ground. Three or more so-called rivers, besides other 
streams, empty into this harbor, and one of these, the Caney River, empties into the 
harbor at the northern limit of the city, so that its water flows from one island ex- 
tremity through the whole harbor into the sea. The difference here, as elsewhere 
in Cuba, between low and high tide is about 2 feet. Population in 1877 was 40.83-">, 
and 5,100 houses. This city is one of the most noted yellow-fever districted tu the 
island. The population in 189G was 42^000. 

The following has been reported: 

Preparations for mounting new and heavy ordnance is now going on at the en- 
trance of the bay (March 5, 1898). 

New and heavier guns are also ordered for Punta Blanca, on the right uf tb.e bay 
near Santiago City. 

Plans have been made for constructing two batteries in the city of Santiago, 
one about 25 yards in front of the American consulate and the other about two 
blocks in rear. 

Cayo Eolones, or Rat Island, located near the middle of the bay, is the Govern- 
ment depository for powder, dynamite, and other e.xplosives. 

The elevation on the right of the entrance, where stands Castle Morro, is -40 
yards above the sea level, while the hill on the left is 20 yards. ■ 

"La Bateria Nueva de la Estrella" is mounted with four revolving cannons. 

The fortifications of Havana were carefully covered in the military notes, and 
thus enumerated: 

There are fifteen fortifications in and about the city of Havana, more or less 
armed and garrisoned, besides a work partly constructed and not armed, called Las 
Animas, and the old bastions along the sea wall of the harbor. These works arc as 
follows: 

Nos. 1 and 2 are earthen redans on the sea coast, east of Havana. 

Velazo Battery, just east of, and a part of, El Morro. 

El Jlorro, a sea coast fort, with flankinc barbette batteries, east of harbor entrance. 



CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 189 

Tlie TwL'lve Ajiostlep. a water battery lying at tlic foot of Morro, with a field 
of fire acro;;s the harbor's mouth. It is a part of Morro. 

La Cabana, a stone-bastioned work with both land and water front, in rear of EI 
Morro. and directly opposite the city of Havana. 

San Diego, a stone-bastioned work with only land fronts, east of Cabana. 

Atares, a stone-bastioned work on hill at southwestern extremity of Havana Bay, 
near the old shipyard called the arsenal. 

San Salvador de la Punta, a stone-bastioned work west of harbor entrance, with 
small adyanced and detached work, built on a rock near harbor mouth. 

La Eeina, a stone work, in shape the segment of a circle, placed on the seacoast, 
at western limits of city, on an inlet called San Lazardo. 

Santa Clara, a small but powerful seacoast battery of stone and earth, placed 
about IJ miles west of harbor. 

ElJ'rincipe, a stone-bastioned redoubt west of Havana. 

Nos. 3 A, 3 B, and 4 are earthen redans on the seacoast west of Havana. 

There are, in addition, several works built for defense, but now used for other 
purposes or abandoned. These are: 

The Torreon de Vigia, a martello tower placed on the inlet of San Lazaro opposite- 
La Reina. 

The old fort called La Fuerza, built three hundred and fifty years ago, near the 
present Plaza de Armas, and now used for barracks and public offices. 

The work called San Nazario, situated north of El Principe, but now used in 
connection with the present cartridge factory, abandoned for defensive purposes. 

The partially constructed fort called Las Animas, southeast of Principe, lying 
on a low hill, partly built but useless and unarmed. 

The old sea wall extending from near La Punta to the Plaza de Armas, unarmed, 
and useless except as a parapet for musketry. 

The old arsenal, on the west of the inner bay, now used as repair works for 
ships, useless for defense. 

The old artillery and engineer storehouses near La Punta, probably once used as 
strongholds, now mere storehouses for munitions of war. 

There are, besides, in the vicinity of Havana, three old and now useless stone 
works — one at Chorrera, the mouth of the Almendarez River, about 4 miles from 
Havana harbor; another at Cojimar, on the coast, about 3 miles eastward of Cabana, 
and the third at the inlet called La Playa de Mariano, about 7 miles west of Havana. 



lyo CITIES OF THE Ql'EEX OF THE ANTILLES. 

Batteries Nos. 1 and 2 were equipped with, No. 1, four Hontoria 6-incli guns; 
iwo Nordunfeldt (i-pounderj; Xo. 2, two Krupp 12-inc-h guns; four Hontoria 
;;-inch mortars. Tlie 12-inch Krupps were to stand off battleships attempting to 
f'jice the liarbor, or to bombard the Morro. The Valago battery, a part of the Morro, 
an out-work on the edge of the cliff, mounting four 11-inch Krupp guns separated by 
earth traverses. 

The Morro, commenced in 1.J89 and finished in 1597, is important for historical 
associations. It is a most picturesque structure, and is useful as a lighthouse and 
prison, and is mounted witli twelve old 10-inch, eight old 8-inch, and fourteen 
old 4-inch guns. 

Cabana, finished in 177-1 at a cost of $1-1,000,000, lies some 500 yards southeast 
of El Morro, on the east side of Havana Bay. Toward the. city it exposes a vertical 
stone wall of irregular trace, with salients at intervals. Toward the Morro is a 
bastioned face protected by a deep ditch, sally port, and drawbridge. Eastward and 
southward a beautifully constructed land front incloses the work. This front is 
protected by ditches 40 or more feet deep, well constructed glacis, stone scarp, and 
counterscarj). Cabana is a magnificent example of the permanent fortifications 
constructed a century ago. Probably 10,000 meH could be quartered in it. 

The entrance to Cabana is by the sally port that opens upon the bridge across the 
moat lying between Cabana and El Morro. Upon entering, the enormous extent of 
the work begins to be perceived, parapet within parapet, galleries, casemates, and 
terreplcins almost innumerable, all of stone and useless. There are no earth covers 
or traverses, and no protection against modern artillery. 

Cabana is the prison for offenders against the State, and the scene of innumer- 
able executions. From an exterior or salient corner of the secretary's office of the 
headquarters there leads a subterranean passage 326 meters long, 2.5 meters wide, 
and l.S() high, excavated in the rock. It conducts to the sea, debouching at the 
mouth of a sewer, 87 meters from the Morro wharf. At exactly 132 meters along 
the road rising from the Morro pier or wliarf to the Cabana, there will be found 
by excavating the rock on the left of the road, at a depth of 3 meters, a grating, on 
ojjening which passage will be made into a road 107 meters long, 1.6 high, and 1.42 
wide, leading to the same exit as the Cabana secret way. These passages are most 
secret, as all believe that the grating of the sewer, seen from the sea, is a drain. 

The battery of Santa Clara is the most interesting of the fortifications of Havana, 
and one of the most important. It lies about 100 yards from the shore of the gulf, 
at a point where the line of hills to the westward runs back (either naturally or 




SECTION OF FLUME TO CONVEY WATER TO SUGAR MILLS IN IIAWAU. 



y-<.- 




i:*'*; 



U!^-*i^l 




LAVA FORMATION AT KILACEA CRATER, 1,0 lu FELT HIGH, LSLAND OF HAWAIL 



CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 19:5 

iutiticiallyj into quarries, thus occupying a low salient backed by a hill. Here are 
three new Krupp 11-inch guns, designed to protect El Principe, the land side of 
Havana. It is 1ST feet above sea levt'l and completely dominates Havana, the bay, 
Morro, Cabana, the coast northward, Atares, and from east around to south, the ap- 
proaches of the Marianao Road, Cristina, and the Western Railroad for about 3 kilo- 
meters, i. e., between Cristina and a cut at that distance from the station. Principe 
gives fire upon Tulipau, the Cerro, the Hill ut the Jesuits, and the valley through 
which passes the Havana Railroad, sweeping completely with its guns the railroad 
as far as the cut at Cienaga, 2^ to 3 miles away. It dominates also the hills south- 
ward and westward toward Puentes Grandes and the Almendarez River, and country 
extending toward Marianao, also the Calzada leading to the cemetery and 
toward Chorrera; thence the entire sea line (the railroad to Chorrera is 
partly sheltered by the slope leading to Principe). This is by all means the strongest 
position about Havana which is occupied. Lying between it and the hill of the Cerro 
is the hill of the Catalan Club, right under the guns of the work and about one-half 
mile away. The Marianao Road is more sheltered than the Havana, as it runs near 
the trees and hill near the Cerro. The only points which dominate the hill of the 
Principe lie to the south and southeast in the direction of Jesus del Monte and be- 
yond Regla. On its southern, southeastern, and southwestern faces the hill of Prin- 
cipe is a steep descent to the calzada and streets below. The slope is gradual west- 
ward and around by the north. From this hill is one of the best views of Havana 
and the valley south. El Principe lies about one-half mile frnm the north coast, 
from which hills rise in gradual slopes toward the work. It is Havana gossip that 
El Principe is always held by the Spanish regiment in which the Captain-General 
has most confidence. The military notes pronounce El Principe undoubtedly the 
strongest natural position about Havana now occu])ied by defensive works. Its 
guns sweep the heights of the Almendares, extending from the north coast south- 
ward bv the hills of Puentes Grandes to the valley of Cienaga, thence eastward across 
the Hill of the Jesuits and the long line of trees and houses leading to the Cerro. 
The country beyond the Cerro is partly sheltered by trees and hills, but eastward El 
Principe commands in places the country and the bay shore, and gives fire across 
Havana seaward. 

The most vulnerable spot in the defenses of Havana is the aqueduct of Isabella 
II, or the Vento. The water is from the Vento Springs, pure and inexhaustable, nine 
miles out of Havana. 

All three of the water supplies to Havana, the Zanja and the two aqueducts of 



1!)4 CITIES OF THE QFEEX OF THE ANTILLES. 

Ferdinand VII and of the Vento, proceed from the Almendares and run their course 
near to each other, the farthest to the west being the Zanja and to the east the Vento. 

At Vento Springs is constructed a large stone basin, open at the bottom, through 
which springs bubble. From this reservoir the new aqueduct leads. It is an elhp- 
tical tunnel of brick, placed under ground, and marked by turrets of brick and 
stone placed along its course. 

From the Vento Eeservoir the new aqueduct crosses the low valley south of 
Havana, following generally the Calzada de Vento, which becomes, near the Cerro, 
the Calzada de Palatino, to a point on the Western Eailway marked 5 kilometers 
(about); hence the calzada and the aqueduct closely follows the railway for about a 
mile, terminating at a new reservoir. 

The Vento water is the best thing Havana has. and indispensable. The old 
sources of supply are intolerable. The main water supply is the Zanja. Through- 
out the most of its course this river flows through unprotected mud banks; the fluids 
of many houses, especially in the Cerro ward which it skirts, drain into them; men, 
horses, and dogs bathe in it; dead bodies have been seen floating in it. and in the 
rainy season the water becomes very nuiddy. In fine, the Zanja in its course receives 
all which a little brook traversing a village and having houses and back yards on its 
banks would receive. The water can not be pure, and to those who know the facts 
the idea of drinking it is repulsive. This supply had long been insufficient to the 
growing city, and in 1835 the well-protected and excellent aqueduct of Ferdinand 
VII was completed. It taps the Almendares River a few hundred j-ards above filters 
mentioned, hence carried by arches to the east El Cerro, and for some distance 
nearly parallel to the Calzada del Cerro. but finally intersecting this. These works 
are succeeded by the Famous Vento. When Havana is fought for hereafter the 
fight will be at the Vento Springs. This remark is not made in the military notes, 
but the military men know it well. When General Miles expected to attack Havana 
he procured all the accessible surveys and detail of information, official and through 
special observation and personal knowledge obtainable of the water works. Life 
could not he sustained many days in the city of Havana without the water of the 
adorable Vento. 

A special interest attaches to Havana, as it is to he a city under the control of 
the United States. The surface soil consists for the most part of a thin layer of 
red, yellow, or black earths. At varying depths beneath this, often not exceeding 
1 or 2 feet, lie the solid rocks. These foundation rocks are, especially in the north- 
ern and more modern parts of the city toward the coast of the sea and not of the 



CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 195 

harbor, Quarternary, and espec-ially Tertiary, formations, so permeable that liquids 
emptied into excavations are absorbed and disappear. 

In other parts of the city the rocks are not permeable, and pools are formed. 
In proportion as the towns of Cuba are old, the streets are narrow. In Havana 
this peculiarity is so positive that pedestrians cannot pass on the sidewalks, nor 
vehicles on the streets. Less than one-third of the population live on paved streets, 
and these are as well paved and kept as clean, it is believed cleaner, than is usual in 
the United States. The remainder live on unpaved streets, which, for the most 
part, are very filthy. ]\Iany of these, even in old and densely populated parts of the 
city, are no better than rough country roads, full of rocks, crevices, mud holes, and 
other irregularities, so that vehicles traverse them with diiSculty at all times, and 
in the rainy season they are sometimes impassible for two months. Eough, muddy, 
or both, these streets serve admirably as permanent receptacles for much decom- 
posing animal and vegetable matter. Finally, not less, probably more, than one- 
half the population of Havana live on streets which are constantly in an extremely 
insanitary condition, but these streets, though so numerous, are not in the beaten 
track of the pleasure tourist. 

In the old intramural city, in which live about 40,000 people, the streets vary in 
width, but generally they are 6.8 meters (about 22 feet wide, of which the side- 
walks occupy about 7.5 feet. In many streets the sidewalk at each side is not even 
18 inches wide. In the new, extramural town, the streets are generally 10 meters 
(32.8 feet) wide, with 3 meters (nearly 10 feet) for the sidewalks, and 7 meters (23 
feet) for the wagonway. There are few sidewalks in any except in the first four 
of the nine city districts. 

More than two-thirds of the population live in densely inhabited portions of the 
city, where the houses are crowded in contact with each other. The average house 
lot does not exceed 27 by 112 feet in size. There are 17,259 hotises, of which 15,491 
are one-story, 1,552 are two stories, 18G are three stories, and only 27 are four stories, 
with none higher. At least 12 in every 13 inhabitants live in one-story houses; and 
as the total civil, military, and transient population exceeds 200,000 there are more 
than 12 inhabitants to every house. Tenement houses may have many small rooms, 
but each room is occupied by a family. Generally the one-story houses have four or 
five rooms; but house rent, as also food and clothing, is rendered so expensive bv 
taxation, by export as well as import duties,that it is rare for workmen, even when paid 
$50 to $100 a month, to enjoy the exclusive use of one of these mean little house-- 
reserving one or two rooms for his family, he rents the balance. This condition of 



196 CITIES OF THE QUEEN OF THE ANTILLES. 

affairs is readily understood when it is known that sc great a necessity as flour 
coit in Havana $15.50 when its price in the United States was $6.50 per barrel. 

In the densely populated portions of the city the houses generally have no back 
yard, properly so called, but a Hagged court, or narrow vacant space into which sleep- 
ing rooms open at the side, and in close proximity with these, at the rear of this con- 
tracted court are located tlie kitchen, the privy, and often a stall for animals. In 
tlie houses of the poor, that is, of the vast majority of the population, there are 
no storerooms, pantries, closets, or other conveniences for household supplies. These 
are furnished from day to day, even from meal to meal, by the corner groceries; 
and it is rare, in large sections of Havana, to find any one of the four corners of 
a scjuare without a grocery. 

The walls of most of the houses in Havana are built of "mamposteria" or 
rubble masonry, a porous material which freely absorbs atmospheric as well as 
ground moisture. The mark of this can often be seen high on the walls, which 
varies from 3 to 7 feet in the houses generally. The roofs are excellent, usually 
flat, and constructed of brick tiles. The windows are. like the doors, unusually 
liigli, nearly reaching the ceiling, which, in the best houses oidy. is also unusually 
high. The windows are never glazed, but protected by strong iron bars on the out- 
side and on the inside by solid wooden shutters, which are secured, like the doors, 
with heavy bars or bolts, and in inclement weather greatly interfere with proper ven- 
liiation. Fireplaces witli chimneys are extremely rare, so that ventilation depends 
entirely on the doors and windows, which, it should be stated, are by no means 
unusually large in most of the sleeping rooms of the poor. Generally in Havana, 
less generally in other cities, the entrances and courtyards arc flagged with stone, 
while the rooms are usually floored with tile or marble. With rare exceptions the 
lowest floor is in contact with the earth. Ventilation between the earth and floor 
is rarely seen in Cuba. In Havana the average height of the ground floor is from 
7 to 11 inches above the pavement, but in Havana, and more frequently in other 
Cuban towns, one often encounters houses which arc entered by stepping down from 
the sideualk. and some floors are even below the level of the street. In Havana 
some of the floors, in JIatanzas more, in Cardenas and Cienfuegos many are of the 
bare earth itself, or of planks raised only a few inches above the damp ground. 

Tlie narrow entrance about 400 ^-ards in width and 1.200 in length, opens into 
the irregular harbor, which has three chief coves or indentations, termed "ensena- 
das." ■ The extreme length of the harbor from its sea entrance to the limit of the 
most distant ensenada is 3 miles, and its extreme breadth 1 J miles; but within the 



CITIES OF TTIK QFEEX OF THE AXTTLLES. 197 

entrance the average length is only about 1, and the average breadth about two-third- 
of a mile. However, because of the irregularly projecting points of land which form 
the ensenadas, there is no locality in the harbor where a vessel can possibly anchor 
farther than JUO yards from the shore. Its greatest depth is about 40 feet, but the 
anchorage ground for vessels drawing 18 feet of water is very contracted, not exceed- 
ing oue-lialf the size of the harbor. The rise and fall of the tide does not exceed 
2 feet. 

The Cuban city next in celebrity to Havana is Matanzas, and it is one likely to 
become a favorite of Americans, as the country in the vicinity is distinguished by 
beauty as well as remarkable for fertility. Matanzas was first regularly settled in 
1093. It is in the province of Matanzas, 54 miles west of Havana, by the most di- 
rect of the two railroads which unite these two cities, and is situated on the western 
inland extremity of the bay of Matanzas, a harbor of the first class. Matanzas is 
divided into three districts, viz, the central district of Matanzas, which, about half 
a mile in width across the center of population, lies between the two little rivers, 
San Juan to the south, and the Yumuri to the north; the Pueblo Nuevo district, 
south of the San Juan, and around the inland extremity of the harbor; and the dis- 
trict of Versalles, north of the Yumuri, nearest to the open sea, as also to the an- 
chorage ground, and, sanitarily, the best situated district in the city. About two- 
thirds of the population are in the district of Matanzas, and the Pueblo Nuevo districi 
has about double the population of Versalles. Pueblo Nuevo stands on ground 
originally a swamp, and is low, flat, and only 3 or 4 feet above the sea. The Ma- 
tanzas district has many houses on equally low ground, on the harbor front, and on 
the banks of the two rivers which inclose this district; but from the front and be- 
tween these rivers the ground ascends, so that its houses are from 2 to even lOO feet 
above the sea; however, the center of population, the public square, is only about 20 
feet above sea level. Versalles is on a bluff of the harbor, and its houses are situated, 
for the most part, from 15 to 40 feet above the sea. The district of Matanzas has 
ill constructed and useless sewers in only two streets, and no houses connected 
therewith. So much of this district and of Versalles as is built .on the hill slope is 
naturally well drained, but the Pueblo Nuevo district, and those parts of Matanzas 
built in immediate proximity to the banks of the river, are very ill drained. 

Since 1872 Matanzas has had an aqueduct from the Bello spring, 7 miles distant. 
The supply is alleged to be both abundant and excellent. But of the 4,710 houses 
in the city 840 stand on the hills outside the zone supplied by the waterworks, while 
of the remaining 3,870 houses within this zone only about 2,000 get their water 



198 CITIES OF THE QUEEX OE THE ANTILLES. 

from tlie waterworks company. Hence more than half of the houses of Matanzas 
(2,710) do for the most part get their supply in kegs by purchase in the streets. 
There are a few public fountains, as also some dangerous wells. The streets are 
30 feet wide, with 24 feet wagon way. Few of them are paved, some are very poor 
roads, but, for the most part, these roads are in good condition. In the ilatanzas dis- 
trict some of the streets are of solid stone, and natural foundation rock of the place, 
for the superficial soil is so thin that the foundation rocks often crop out. Of this 
very porous rock most of the houses are built. The houses have wider fronts, larger 
air spaces in rear, are not so crowded, and are better ventilated than the houses of 
Havana. As is usual in Cuba, the ground floors are generally on a level with the 
sidewalk, and some are even below the level of the streets. A heavy rain floods many 
of the streets of Matanzas, the water running back into and beneath the hou;es. The 
porous limestone of which tlie houses are built greatly favors absorption. 

The population of Matanzas and suburbs was about 50,000 at the beginning of 
the war. 



BOOK III. 



HAWAII. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The imperial Japanese and American sugar kings, next to the royalists of 
Honolulu — the owners of opiate and lottery franchises — crown land, and other 
attiliated rings, around them — were the most bitterly disappointed personages and 
people when the American flag, after an up and down unforgotten, ascended the 
flagstaff of state in the Hawaiian capital to remain, significant of the sovereignty 
of the greater American Republic. Honolulu is 1,200 miles from San Francisco 
and has long been, in its material interests and customs and principles, American- 
ized. The teachings of its most influential inhabitants have had this auspicious 
result. There were many American flags left when Commissioner Blount removed 
the one disapproved by President Cleveland, who believed the United States had 
covertly conquered the kingdom, depriving the queen of the royal rights she had 
asserted. The flag controversy and the question of the restoration of the mon- 
archy have disappeared together. The American element in the archipelago i.f 
established in law to rule. We are under obligation to defend Honolulu just as 
much as if the city was on the Pacific coast of the American continent. A disposi- 
tion to contention has been noted in various quarters to the effect that the pros- 
perity in worldly goods of the missionaries and their descendants, is to be regarded 
as acquisitiveness, rather than an illustration of Christian virtue. But a slight 
examination of available facts is convincing that many of the accumulations pointed 
out for criticism may be attributed rather to the original inheritance of intelligence 
and industry that improved legitimate opportunities, than to the organization of 
monopolies through Christian endeavor. It is possible, perhaps we should say pal- 
pable, that the missionaries and their children and grandchildren, have qualities 
that energize their activities and that their right to say according to what they 
do is considerably greater than the percentage they make in the census records of 
the mass of the population. We are not aware that the missionaries have done 
anything in the course of their labors for two generations that would rationally 
explain, much less justify, the persecution of their posterity. There is a certain 
latitude allowed descendants of ministers of the gospel even in New England, be- 
cause it is assumed they are subjected by the retroactive tendencies manifest in 

mankind, to especial temptation. But so long as the privilege is not a prerogative 

203 



204 INTRODUCTION. 

there is no evident occasion to rise up and turn and overturn to the extent of 
disturbing the civic repose of orderly communities. Before the missionaries 
arrived there was a good deal of testimony that the natives needed other instruc- 
tion in Christian civilization than that which they got from the sailors. Captain 
Cook and Vancouver and other navigators who discovered the islands and explored 
them on the way to seek what was known as "the north-west passage" have been 
blamed for dispensations that were disastrous. It is not regarded as certain, 
however, that Captain Cook had not Spanish predecessors. Just as it was the 
policy of Spain to falsify on the charts the depth of water in ilanila bay — 
Admiral Dewey ploughed with ships drawing twenty-five feet without scraping 
bottom, to get at Montejo's squadron, where the official Spanish map recorded 
fifteen feet. This sort of deception influenced the surveys and reports of the 
Spanish voyages in the Pacific Ocean, furnished ground for belief that they might 
have discovered the "Sandwich Islands" a good while Jjefore Captain Cook was 
born. 

The Hawaiians are so soft a race that they seem to require the help of races 
of tougher fiber and greater energy. The grievance of the natives most lamentable 
in their complaints is that the '"poy" they once wound around their fingers and 
swallowed without effort — a paste made of a prolific tul)er with a certain sour- 
ness of fermentation in it — a food that is a luxury to a cultivated taste somewhat 
hard to acquire, owing to the use of fingers and fancies of uncleanliness, is not 
as plentiful and cheap as once upon a time. The native theory of objection to 
the progress found fault with for this privation is therefore that life is not as 
easy living as in other days when the abundance of succulent food that was pro- 
duced with little care and almo.st cooked itself, was greater. The advance in the 
cost of living is the saddest of native sorrows. It is held to favor a tendency to 
food monopoly. It is necessary to say that the trouble is with the natives them- 
selves. If there is any commandment the Hawaiian does not understand or at all 
apply to himself, it is that in the sweat of the face shall bread be eaten. In fact, 
that never applied to "poy." The requirement that perspiration induced by labor 
goes before eating is not approved by the native. The tuber that is converted into 
the jiaste that is the favorite and fattening food of the common people, who are 
rounded out into fair proportions with it, if they eat it early and often, though 
indigenous, and of abounding proclivity, has to be planted, and there must be some 
place to plant it and the toil of a few minutes preliminary to the production of 
a crop implies irksome forethought; and a great deal of land is taken up by 
agriculturists who know not the tuber. It is dreadful that the task of planting 



IXTRODUCTION. 205 

the vegetable that freely yields the "poy" is not gratuitously carried on by the 
government, or even by the missionaries who are charged with having a great deal 
of good land. Somebody has to look after the welfare of the islanders, for they 
are inattentive, and the field is open for tlie production of the food of the people 
as a matter of beneficence. It is not loyalty to ro}-alty or repining about political 
rights, that troubles the gentle airs of the ever-blowing trade winds — whose mois- 
ture is condensed into showers by the mountain peaks and delivered through 
arches of rainbows — for the sun will shine when it rains, and the valleys are 
spanned with bows of promise — Imt it is the iron grasp of progressive civilization 
holding the ])rinciples that reliable food products are dependent upon the disturb- 
ance of the soil! It is the native contention that the advocacy of this principle 
in Hawaii is an error. -It is a hardship even to plant cocoanut palms, bananas 
and the tubers that are so facile and fattening. We may say in the simplest 
terms that the bed rock of the legal and social structures in which the natives of 
Hawaii must be preserved, or if neglected perish, is that somebody must take care 
of the natives and cherish them. It is a bad thing when a man and woman of 
the Hawaiian race are married. They have to look out for themselves. It is 
much the better way for the native woman to marry a Chinaman, a Japanese 
or a Portuguese, and that the native man should find a wife outside his race, for 
if there is an outsider, so to speak, in each house, there is somebody to take care of 
folks, keep house and feed the children, and that sort of thing. 

Tlie Japanese took the annexation of Hawaii to the United States very haid. 
They wanted the islands for themselves. Driven from the Asian continent by 
Eussia, they need, according to their estimation, all the Pacific archipelagoes. They 
have not been able to do much in Formosa, but swallowing that island, instead of 
satiating them, has increased their appetite. It is a very good tiling to have the 
consent of the governed all the time about everything, but there has been lati- 
tudinarianism touching the application of this dogma in our own country, not in 
territories so much as in states. We began to discriminate against Asiatics -some 
time ago, and the importation under contract of labor from China and Japan, 
and the conditions of Hawaii in this matter are phenomenal, as so many Asiatics 
have come — from that sometimes frosty part of Asia it is notable, above the tropics 
— with so small a per cent of women that there is no sign of home life, and this 
situation calls for the adoption and execution of regulations to associate suffrage, 
at least with the possibility of families, and to be slow in demanding or consent- 
ing that those who are ignorant of all the experiences of peoples in governing 
themselves shall have political equality, pfirticularly if they are residing upon our 



■^()^•y INTRODUCTION. 

land under contracts necessarily transient and opposed to our laws and customs 
and to the instincts of the ]Hescrvation of respect for citizenship. Tliere must in 
Hawaii be restraint upon tlie exercise of suffrage. 

Hawaii comes to us after a generation of American predominance without uni- 
versal suffrage. This new possession has not cost us a war; it will help us to keep 
the peace. It would have been jireposterous for us not to take it, for the appro- 
])riation was according to the indisputable logic of the presence of our states 
looking upon the Pacific Ocean. We should have made the Allegheny or the 
Kocky Mountains or the Mississippi river our western boundary if we had not 
meant, so far as the course of enterprise and empire had a meaning, to become a 
power in the Pacific Ocean and a factor in the future of Asia. If the expansion 
of the United States over our new possessions is to be found fault with, our ten- 
dencies to imperialism in the acquisition of territory should have been checked 
l)efore we broke over the boundaries of the original thirteen colonies. Mischief 
was afoot when Tennessee, Kentucky and Ohio were accepted as new possessions'. 
Let us exalt the ])urchase of Louisiana by Thomas Jefferson as a public service 
in the spirit of the Declaration oi Independence, an accomplishment worthy of the 
author of that document, and ranking with it for all time, magnifying his glorious 
memory. It was imder his direction that Lewis and Clarke ascended the Missouri, 
descended the Columbia, and standing on our soil looked upon the surf of the 
Pacific Ocean. There were those who thought then, as, perhaps, some think 
now, that this was going too far, that it is inconsistent with the farewell address 
and the Declaration of Independence! There were many who believed that if we 
ventured upon expansion to the Pacific the policy would dissolve the L'nion. It 
was contended then that the distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific was so tre- 
mendous, six months being the shortest time within which we could cross the 
continent, that our magnificent Republic would break in pieces, if we planted our- 
selves on the sundown side of North America. The same alarm about di.stance 
is heard in the outcry against our permanency in the Philippines. This cry was 
raised in warning against our authoritative occupation of Hawaii. Great men in 
New England before this generation had deep misgivings of the policy of "grasping" 
Oregon and California. Now we may name those glorious states as precedents 
of expansion justifying "imperial" enterprise then as now; and we may witli confi- 
dence point to them, and follow the illustrious example of the venerated Fathers, 
whose primary ambition when they achieved independence was to get new land for 
the people. 



CHAPTER I. 

HAWAII AS AXXEXED. 

Tlie Star Spangled Banner Up Again in Hawaii, and to Stay— Dimensions of the 
Islands — What the Missionaries Have Done — Religious Belief by Nation- 
ality — Trade Statistics — Latest Census — Sugar Plantation Laborers — Coinage 
of Silver — Schools — Coffee Growing. 

The star spangled banner should have been waving in peaceful triumph over our 
central possessions in the Pacific for five years. Now Old Glory has ascended the 
famous flag-staff, from which it was mistakenly withdrawn, and is at home. Its 
lustrous folds are welcomed by a city that is strangely American, in the sense that 
it is what the world largely calls "Yankee," and does not mean bad manners by 
the most expressive word that has so vast a distinction. The shops of Honolulu 
are Americanized. There is a splendid blossoming of the flag of the country. The 
British parties of opposition have faded out. There is the wisdom in English 
statesmansliip to be glad to see us with material interest in the Pacific Ocean. In 
this connection there is something better than a treaty. 

Do not mispronounce the name of the capital city of the Hawaiian Islands. Call 
it Hoo-noo-luu-luu and let it sing itself. Remember that this city is not on the 
larger of the islands, but the third in size. The area of Hawaii, the greater island, 
is 4,210 square miles. Oahn, the Honolulu island, has 600 square miles, with a 
population of -10,205, and Hawaii has 33,28.5 people. The area of the islands, told 
in acres is, Hawaii, 2,000,000; Nani, 400,000; Oahu, 260,000; Kauai, 350-,000: 
Malokai. 200,000; Lauai, 100,000; Nichan, 70,000; Kahloolawe, 30,000. The 
dimensions of the tremendous volcanoes that are our property now are startling: 

DDIEXSIOXS OF KILAUEA. ISLAXD OF HAWAII. 
(The largest active Volcano in the World.) 



Area, 4.14 square miles, or 2,650 acres. 
Circumference, 41,500 feet, or 7.85 miles. 
Extreme width, 10,300 feet, or 1.95 miles. 
Extreme length, 15,500 feet, or 2.93 miles. 
Elevation, Volcano House, 1,040 feet. 

207 



208 HAWAII AS AXXKXHD. 

DDIEXSIOXS OF MOKUAWEOWFO. 
(The Summit Crater of ^launa Loa, Island of Hawaii.) 



Area. 3. TO square miles, or 2,370 acres. 
Circumference, 50,000 feet, or 9.47 miles. 
Length, 19, .500 feet, or 3.7 miles. 
Width, 9,200 feet, or 1.7-1 miles. 
Ele\ation, 13,675 feet. 



DJAIEXSIOXS OF HALEAKALA. 
(The great Crater of Maui, the Largest in the World.) 



Area, 19 square miles, or 12,160 acres. 

Circumference, 105,600 feet, or 20 miles. 

Extreme length, 39,500 feet, or 7.48 miles. 

Extreme width, 12.500 feet, or 2.37 miles. 

Elevation of summit, 10.032 feet. 

Elevation of principal cone* in crater, 8.032 and 7,572 feet. 

Elevation of cave in floor of crater, 7,380 feet. 



DIMEXSIONS OF lAO VALLEY, MAUI. 



Length (from Wailuku) about 5 miles. 

Width of valley, 2 miles. 

Depth, near liead. 4.000 feet. • 

P'levation of Puu Kukui, above head of valley, 5,788 feet. 

Elevation of Crater of Eke, above Waihee Valley, 4,500 feet. 



Honolulu's importance comes from the harbor, and the favor of the missionaries. 
As to tlie general judgment of the work of the missionaries, there is nothing better 
to do tliau to quote Mr. Richard H. Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast." He 
said in that classic: 

"It is no small thing to .«ay of the missionaries of the American Board, that in 
less than forty years they have taught this whole people to read and. write, to cipher 
and to sew. They have given them an alphabet, grammar and dislionary; pre- 
served their language from extinction; given it a literature and translated into it 
the Bible, and works of devotion, science and entcrtainm.ent, etc. They have 
established schools, reared up native teachers, and so jiressed their work that now 



H.VAVAII AS ANNEXED. 200 

t'ne proportion of inhabitaots who can read and write is greater tlian in New England. 
And, whereas, they found these islanders a nation of half-naked savages, living in 
the surf and on the sand, eating raw fish, fighting among themselves, tyrannized 
over by feudal chiefs and abandoned to sensuality, they now see them decently 
clothed, recognizing the law of marriage, knowing something of accounts, going to 
school and public worship more regularly than the peiople do at home, and the 
more elevated of them taking part in conducting the affairs of the constitutional 
monarchy under which they live, holding seats on the judicial bench and in the 
legislative chambers, and filling posts in the local magistracies." 

Take away the tropical vegetation and the gigantic scenery and we have here, in 
our new Pacific possessions, a new Connecticut. The stamp of New England is upon 
this lofty land, especially in Honolulu, where the spires of the churches testify. 
There is much that is of the deepest and broadest interest in the possible missionary 
work here, on account of the remarkable race questions presented. Here are the 
nations and the people of mixed blood — the Chinese, Japanese and Portuguese — a 
population immensely representative of Oriental Asia. The measure of success of 
the missionaries under our flag in dealing with these people can hardly fail to be 
accepted by the world as a test of the practical results of the labor with the Asiatica. 
In this connection, the figures following, from the Hawaiian Annual of 1898, fur- 
nish a basis of solid information for study: 

TABLE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF, BY NATIONALITY. 

(So Far as Reported in Census Returns. 189G.) 

Roman 

Nationalities. Protestants. Catholics. Mormons. 

Hawaiians 12,842 8,427 4,.368 

Part Hawaiians 3.242 2.633 396 

Hawaiian born foreigners.... 1,801 6,622 1.5 

Americans 1 .404 2] 2 34 

British 1.184 180 7 

(lermans .")92 83 2 

French '. 6 57 

Norwegians 1 .i4 8 

Portuguese 146 7,813 1 

Japanese 711 49 4 

Chinese .s37 67 49 

South Sea Islanders 178 42 3 

Other nationalities 176 171 7 

Totals 23.2:3 26,363 4,886 

NOTK. — This table shows but 54,522 of the population (just about one-half) 
to have ni:!di returns of their religious belief. With 21,.j35 Japanese and 18,429 



HAWAII AS ANNEXED 





17. Royal Street in Lipa, Bataneras Province. 18. ScLool of .Vrts and CommercB in IIo-Ilo. in. Molo 
Clmrcli in Ilo-Uo. an. .\ Filiuino Funeral Party in Ilo-IIo. ttroupod .Vrountl tlie Tomb. 21. A View of tlio 
San Sebastian Hiclnvay. Manila. 22. Komhlon— Capital of the Island of Su Nombro. 23. View of tlie t'aseo 
de Aguadas, Manila. 24. Filipino Carpenters of Ilo-Ilo at Work. 

VIEWS FROM THE PHILIPPINES 




."JC .\ 



HAWAII AS ANNEXED. 



213 



Cliinese (probably Buddhists and Confucians) unreported because not provided for 
in tiie schedules, tlie great difference is largely accounted for. 

The latest census returns show that of the whole population, 109,020, there are: 
Males, 72,517; females, 3G,503. The latest information of labor, under contract for 
sugar-making, make the number of males on the island more than double that of the 
females. There has been an increase of population of more than 50,000 in the 
eighteen years from 1878 to 1896. The census of the several islands, taken Septem- 
ber 27, 1896, shows: 



Population. 



Dwellings. 



Oahu.. .. 
Hawaii. . . . 

Molokai. . 
Lanai . . . . 
Maui . ... 
Niihau. . . . 
Kauai . . . . 



Male. 

.26.164 
.22.632 
. 1.335 

51 
.11,135 

7(1 
. 10,821 



Kemale. Total. 



14,041 
10,653 

972 

54 
6.291 

S8 
4,404 



40,205 

33,285 

2,307 

105 
17,726 

164 
15,228 



Inhab- 
ited. 

6.685 

5,033 

651 

23 
3,156 

31 
2.320 



Unin- 
habi- 
ted. 

1,065 

955 

92 

13 

650 

3 

299 



Build- Total. 



60 

35 

3 



18 



7,010 

6.027 

746 

36 
3,824 

34 
2,627 



Totals ..72,517 36,503 109,020 17.099 3,081 124 21,104 



Hawaii's annual trade balance since 1879 is a notable record: 



Year. 

1880... 

1881.. 

1882... 

1883... 

1884... 

1885... 

1886... 

1887... 

1888... 

1889.. 

1890... 

1891. . 

1892... 

1893... 

1894.. 

1895... 

1896... 



Imports. 

$3,673,268.41 
4,547,978.64 
4.974,510.01 
5,624,240.09 
4,'637,514.22 
3,830,544.58 
4,877,738.73 
4,943,840.73 
4,540,887.46 
5.438,790.63 
6,962,201.13 
7,438,582.65 
4,028.295,31 
4,363,177.58 
5,104,481,43 
5,714,017..54 
7,164,561.40 



Exports. 

$4,968,444.87 

6,885,436.56 

8,299,016.70 

8,133.343.88 

8,184,922.63 

9,158,818.01 

10,565,885.58 

9.707,047.33 

11,903,398.76 

14.039.941.40 

13,142,829.48 

10,395,788.27 

8,181.687.21 

10,962,598.09 

9,678.794.56 

8,474.138.15 

15,515,230.13 



Excess Export 
Values. 

$1,295,176.46 
2.337,457.92 
3.324,506.69 
2,509,103.79 
3,547,408,41 
5,328,273.43 
5.688,146.85 
4,763.206.61 
7,362,511.30 
8,601,150,77 
6,180,628.35 
2.957,205.62 
4,153.391.90 
5,599.420.51 
4,574,313.13 
2.760.120.61 
8.3.50,668.73 



Custom House 
Ueceipts. 

$402,181.63 
423,192.01 
505,390.98 
577,332.87 
551,739.59 
502.337.38 
580,444.04 
595,002.64 
546,142,63 
550,010.16 
695,956.91 
732.594.93 
494.385.10 
545,754.16 
524,767.37 
547,149.40 
656,895.82 



The percentage of imports from the United States in 1896 was 76.27; Great 
"Britain, 10.54; Germany, 2.06; France. .25: China. 4.17: Japan. 3.86. In 1895 
the export of sugar was 294,784,819 pounds; value, $7,975,500.41. 



214 HAWAII AS ANNEXED. 

NATIONALITY OF VESSELS EilPLOYED IN FOREIGN CARRY- 
ING TRADE, 1889-1896. • 

1889. 1S90. 1891. 1S92. 

Nations. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. 

American.... 185 125,196 224 153,098 233 169,472 212 160,042 

Hawaiian.... 44 56,670 35 43,641 21 26,869 11 4,340 

British 22 21,108 16 22,912 33 52,866 30 56,317 

German 5 3,337 9 7,070 9 9,005 5 5,978 

Japanese 5 8,239 3 4.701 

All others... 9 12,268 9 9,980 10 8,401 11 8,201 



Total... 269 218,579 293 236,701 311 274,852 722 242,579 

BONDED DEBT, ETC., HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, JUNE 30, 1897. 

Per Cent. 



TTfiflpr Tjoan A 


ct 

t( 

u 
a 
a 
It 
a 

rin 


of 1876. 
1882 . 
188(5. 
1888. 
1890. 
1892. 
1893 


-■ 


$ 1 .500 00 




6 ... 


(57.400.00 




G ... 


2.00(1.000.00 




6 . . . . 


190 000 00 




a and 6 ... 


124,100 00 




5 and 6 ... 


82.100.00 




6 


6.i0 000 00 




1896. 
gs Bank 


5 ... 


222 000 00 




Depositors 




Due Postal Sa^ 


3.337,100.00 
782.074.25 


Total... 


$4,119,174.25 



NUMBER AND NATIONALITY OF SUGAR PLANTA- 
TION LABORERS. 

(Compiled from latest Report of Secretary Bureau of Immigration, December 
31, 1897.) 

Hawaii- Portu- Japan- 
Islands, ans. guese. ese. 

Hawaii 594 980 6.245 

Mauai 580 526 2.010 

Oahu 197 211 1,331 

Kauai' 244 551 3,307 





S. S. 


All 




Chinese. 


Isl'ders. 


Others. 


Total. 


2.511 


24 


232 


10,586 


1,114 


45 


110 


4.3S5 


973 


16 


55 


2,783 


1.691 


30 


203 


6.02 G 



Total. 1896 1,615 2.268 12.893 6.289 115 600 23.780 

Total, 1895.... 1,584 2.497 11,584 3.847 133 473 20,120 



Increase, 1896 :U .... 1,309 2,442 .... 127 3,660 

Decrease. 1899 231 18 

The number of day laborers, 11,917, or a little over one-half of the total force 

engaged. The Japanese and South Sea Islanders are about evenly divided in their 

numbers as to term and day service, while Hawaiians and Portuguese show each but 



HAWAII AS ANNEXED. 215 

a small proportion of their numbers under contract. Minors are reducing in num- 
ber. Women laborers, numbering 1,02-i in all, show a gain of 89 over 1875. Only 
thirty Hawaiian females arc engaged among all the plantations, and confined to one 
plantation each in Oahu, Kauai and Maui. 

The Ilwaiian Annual of 1898 makes this annotation: 

During the year various changes have occurred in the labor population of the 
country, and under the working of the present law, requiring a proportion of otlier 
than Asiatic of all immigrant labor introduced, there has already arrived one company 
of Germans, comprising 115 men, 25 women and 47 children, all of whom found 
ready engagements with various plantations. 

Chinese arirvals in 1897 to take the place of Japanese whose terms were expiring, 
will alter the proportions of these nationalitis of plantation labor, and by the new 
lau' Asiatic laborers must return to tlieir country at the expiration of their term of 
service, or re-engage; they cannot drift around the country, nor engage in competi- 
tion with artizans or merchants. 

The islands comprising the Hawaiian territory are Hawaii, ^lauai, Oaha, Kauai, 
Molokai, Lauai, Niihau, Kahaalawe, Lehua and Molokini, "The Leper Prison," and, 
in addition, Nihoa, or Bird Island, was taken possession of in 1822; an expedition for 
that purpose having been fitted out by direction of Kaahumanu, and sent thither 
tinder the charge of Captain William Sumner. 

Laysan Island became Hawaiian territory May 1st, 1857, and on the 10th of the 
same month Lysiansky Island was added to Kamehameha's realm by Captain 
John Paty. 

Palmyra Island was taken possession of by Captain Zenas Bent, April loth, 
1862, and proclaimed Hawaiian territory in the reign of Kamehamelia IV., as per 
"By Authority" notice in the "Polynesian" of June 21st, 1862. 

Ocean Island was acquired September 20th, 1886, as per proclamation of Colonel 
J. II. Boyd, empowered for such service during the reign of Kalakaua. 

Nccker Island was taken possession of May 27th, 1894, by Captain James A. 
King, on behalf of the Hawaiian Government. 

French Frigate Shoal was the latest acquisition, also by Captain King, and pro- 
claimed Hawaiian territory July 13th, 1895. 

Gardener Island, Mara or ]Moro Reef,- Pearl and Hermes Reef, Gambia Bank, and 
Johnston or Cornwallis Island are also claimed as Hawaiian possessions, but there 
is some obscurity as to the dates of acquisition, and it is of record in the Foreign 
Office articles of convention between lion. Charles St. Julien, the Commissioner 
and Political and Commercial Agent of His Majesty the King of the Hawaiian 



216 HAWAII AS AXXKXED. 

Islands, ami John Webster, Esq., the Sovereign Chief and Projjrietor of the group 
of islands known as Stewart's Islands (situated near the Solomon Group), whereby is 
ceded to the Hawaiian Government — subject to ratification by the King — the island- 
of Ihikaiana, Te Parena, Taore, Matua Awi and Matua Ivoto, comprising said group 
of Stewart's Islands. But the formalities do not seem to have been perfected, so 
tliat we are not certain that the Stewart's Islands are our possessions. The latest 
tliorough census of tlie Hawaiian Islands was taken in September, 1S1»{|, but the 
population was closely estimated July 1st, 189T. 

Japan- Portu- All Other 
Natives. Chinese. esc. guese. Foreigners. Total 
Population as per Census, . 

September, 1896 3'J,.j04 21,G1G 21,10? I,!, 191 8.302 109,020 

Passengers — Arrivals — 
Excess over departures. 

4th quarter, lS9(i 1..37r l.(i:3 339 3.389 

Excess over departure.-. 

G mos. to July 1. 189: 2,908 39(i .58 207 3,.")l!9 



Total 39,-504 2.j,901 26,4?6 15,249 8,848 115,978 

The following denominations of Ilawaiiiin silver were i-oinetl during the reign 
of Kalakaua, at the San Francisco n\int. and imjiorted for the circulating medium 
of the islands in 1883 and 1884. They ai'e of the same intrinsic value as the 
United States silver coins and were first introduced into circulation January 14th, 
at the opening of the bank of Clans Sprecklcs & Co. in Honolulu. The amount 
coined was $1,000,000, divided as follows: 

Hawaiian Dollars $ .500,000 

Half Dollars 350,000 

Quarter Dollars 125,000 

Dimes 25.000 

Total ^ $1,000,000 



SCHOOLS, TEACHERS AND IMIMI.S FOK THE YEAR 1896. 

— Puiiil.-.— 
Male. Female. 

Government 132 111 169 280 5.T54 1,435 

independent 63 72 130 202 1,994 1,840 

195 183 299 482 ?,?4S 6,275 







-Teachers. - 


— 


Schools, 


Male. 


Fenuile. 


Total. 


132 


Ill 


169 


280 


63 


72 


130 


202 



HAWAII AS ANNEXED 217 

NATIONALITY OF PUPILS ATTENDING SCHOOLS FOR THE 

YEAR 1896. 

Nntionalitv- Male. Female. 

Hawaiian.. .". 3.048 2,432 

Part-Hawaiian 1.1.52 1,296 

American 219 198 

British 10.5 151 

German 152 136 

Portuguese 2,066 1,534 

Scandinavian 51 47 

Japanese 242 155 

Chinese 641 280 

South Sea Islanders 15 13 

Other f orei.uners 57 33 



t . 



148 6.275 



Of the Japanese, 8.5 per cent, were born on the islands; of the Chinese, per- 
centage born here, 10.3. Of a total of 41,711 Japanese and Chinese, 36,121 are 
males and 5,590 females. The figures show that the Asiatics are not at home. 

The sugar industrj' in our new possessions has had great prominence agricultur- 
ally. The sugar interest of these islands has had a formidable influence in the L^'uited 
States. Recent events and the ascertained certainties of the future show that the peo- 
ple of the United States will soon raise their sugar supply on their own territory. The 
annexation of these sugar islands was antagonized because there was involved the 
labor contract system. As a matter of course, the United States will not change 
the labor laws of the nation to suit the sugar planters of Hawaii, who have been ob- 
taining cheap labor through a system of Asiatic servitude. There is but one solu- 
tion — labor will be better compensated in Hawaii than it has been, and yet white 
men will not be langely employed in the cultivation of sugar cane in our tropical 
islands. The beet sugar industry is another matter. There will be an end of the 
peculiar institution that has had strength in our new possessions, that brings, under 
contract, to Hawaii a mass of forty thousand Chinese and Japanese men, and turns 
over the majority of them to the plantations, whose profits have displayed an un- 
wholesome aggrandizement. Once it was said cotton could not be grown in the 
cotton belt of our country without slave labor, but the latter trouble is, the cotton 
producers claim, there is too much of their product raised. A ten-million bale 
crop depresses the market. Already experiments have been tried successfully to 
pay labor in the sugar fields by the tons of cane delivered at the mills for grinding. 
TIks is an incident full of auspicious significance. A general feeling is expressed in 



218 HAWAII AS AXXEXED. 

the current saying that coffee raising is "the coming industry." The confidence 
that there is prosperity in coffee amounts to enthusiasm. Ilere are some of the sta- 
tistics of coffee growers, showing number of trees and area, trees newly planted and 
trees in bearing: 

NO. OF TREES OK AKEA. 

Newly 1 to 3 year Trees 
Planted. old. in Bearing. 

J. C. Lenhart, Kaupo 2,000 trs. 4,000 tis 

Mokulau rottee Co., Kaupo 2,(100 trs. lO.ddO trs. 2 acres. 

E. E. Faxton, Kaupo 5,0(M) trs. 7,(M»() trs 

Native Patches throughout Katipo 10 acres 

Lahaina Coffee and Fruit Co., Ltd., Lahaina . . . 10,000 trs. 100,000 trs. 30,000 trs. 

H. P. Baldwin, Honokahua 35,947 trs. 4,669 trs. 2,641 trs. 

AVaianae Coffee Plantation Co., AN'aianae 7,500 trs. 23,000 trs. 36,000 trs. 

C. A. Widcnian, Waianae 10,000 trs. 8,500 trs 

Makaha Coffee Co., Ltd., Waiauae 112 acres 

Lanihau Plantation, Kailua 20,700 trs. 25,000 trs. 10,000 trs. 

Koua Coffee Co., Ltd., Kailna 35 acres. 

Geo. JMcDougal & Sons, Kailua 176 acres. 105 acres. 

H. C. Achi, 1 lolualoa 10,000 trs. 

E. W. Barnard, Laupahoclioe 30,000 trs. 

J. M. Barnard, Laupalioehoe 5,I)0I> trs 

John Gaspar, Napoopoo 33,000 trs. 16,000 trs. 

Manuel Si'bastian, Kcalakckua 8,000 trs. 

J. G. Hcnriiiues, Kealakekua 3,00l) trs. 

C. Hooper, Kauleoli 2 acres. 12 acres. 

J. Keanu, Keci " 5 acres. 10 acres. 16 acres. 

A. S. Cleghorn 3 acres 100 acres. 

Mrs. E. C. Greenwell 8 acres. 25 acres. 

J. M. IMonsarrat, Kolo 38 acres. 40 acres. 

Queen Emma Plantation 25,000 trs. 

L. M. Staples Plantation 25,000 trs. 12,000 trs. 

Olaa Coffee Co., Ltd 50 acres. 90 acres 

Grossnuin Bros 100 acres. 30 acres 

B. H. I'.rowu 2,260 trs. 2,000 trs. 3,225 trs. 

Herman Eldart 40,000 trs. 20,000 trs. 7,000 trs. 

The list of coffee growers is very long. That which is of greater interest is 
tiie showing made of the immense number of new trees. The coffee luovcinent stead- 
ily gains force and the pace of progress is accelerated. 

Everybody has not been plea.sed with annexation. The Japanese are not in a 
good humor about it. The minister of Japan got his orders evidently to leave for 
Japan when the news arrived that the question had been settled in Washington, and 
he left for Yokohama by the boat that brought the intelligence. Japanese journals 
of importance raise the question as to the proj)riety of our establishing a coal sta- 
tion here. There is some dissatisfaction among the Hawaiians, who are bewildered. 



HAWAII AS ANNEXED. 219 

They are children who behcve stories in proportion as they are queer. Many of 
them feel that they have a grievance. The young princess who is the representative 
of the extinguished monarchy is affable and respected. If the question as to giv- 
ing her substantial recognition were left to the Americans here, they would vote 
for her by a large majority. It would not be bad policy for the government to be 
generous toward her. She is not in the same boat with the ex-Queen. The Ameri- 
cans who have been steadfast in upholding the policy that at last has prevailed are 
happy, but not wildly so, just happy. Now that they have gained their cause, their 
unity will be shaken by discussions on public questions and personal preferments. 

There should be no delay in understanding that in this Archipelago the race 
questions forbid mankind suffrage, and that our new possessions are not to become 
states at once, or hurriedly; that it will take generations of assimilation to prepare 
the Hawaiian Islands for statehood. 

The objection to the climate of the marvelous islands of which we have bf- 
come possessed is its almost changeless character. There is no serious variation 
in the temperature. There is a little more rain in "winter" than in "summer." 
There is neither spring nor fall. The trade winds afford a slight variety, and this 
seems to be manipulated by the mountains, that break up the otherwise unsparing 
monotony of serene loveliness. The elevations of the craters, and the jagged 
jieaks are from one thousand to thirteen thousand feet. If you want a change of 
climate, climb for cold, and escape the mosquitos, the pests of this paradise. There 
are a score of kinds of palms; the royal, the date, the cocoanut, are of them. The 
bread fruit and banana are in competition. The vegetation is voluptuous and the 
scenery stupendous. There is a constellation of islands, and they differ like the 
stars in their glories and like human beings in tlieir difficulties. 



CHAPTEK IT. 

THE TEERITOKY OF HAWAII. 

l{e])ort of the Hawaiian Commission — Description of the Isbinds — Their Resources 
— Commerce — Character of Their People — Detail of the Territorial Gov- 
ernment — Kecommended anrl ilost Vahiahle Otlicial Reports of the Features 
of Civilization and ilaterial Resources of the Islands. 

The report of the Hawaiian Commission, sent to the Senate December 6 
1898, was of remarkable interest, because it brought before Congress and the 
country the detail of government of our new possessions that are to be of our 
dominion, and 3'et apart from us in j)eculiar conditions and relations, requiring 
laws and forms of proceedings novel to our experience and applicable in many 
ways to Porto Rico, Cuba and the Philijjpines. The report of the Commissioners 
bristles with points that command attention, in the changes recommended in the 
laws of Hawaii to suit the existing conditions and conform to the Constitution 
and the policy of the United States. More than this, the information presented 
by the Commission is upon authority, and will have distinction in the history 
of this period of expansion, advancement and transition. These are the first 
distinct footsteps of the movement that is logical, and not unfamiliar in our 
progressive development, and yet is characterized as the new departure. The 
Commissioners were appointed and commissioned by the President pursuant to 
the joint resolution to provide for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the 
United States, which appeared July 7th, 1898. The joint resolution contained 
these passages: 

"lentil Congress shall provide for the government of such islands all the civil, 
judicial, and military powers exercised by the officers of the existing government 
in said islands shall be vested in such person or persons and shall be exercised 
in such manner as the President of the United States shall direct; and the 
President shall have power to remove said officers and fill the vacancies so occa- 
sioned. 

"The existing treaties of the Hawaiian Islands with foreign nations shall 
forthwith cease and determine, being replaced by such treaties as may exist, or 
as may be hereafter concluded, between the United States and such foreign 
nations. The municipal legislation, of the Hawaiian Islands, not enacted for the 

220 



TIIK TKKHITOHY OF HAWAII. 221 

lullillment of the treaties so extiiiguislied, and not inconsistent with tliis joint 
resohition nor contrary to the Constitution of the United States nor to any exist- 
in<>- treaty of tlie United States, sliall remain in force until the Congress of the 
I'nited States shall otherwise determine." 

The United States Commissioners, Senators Cullom and Morgan and Rejire- 
sentative Hitt, effected a partial organization in Wa.shington, July ICth. The 
second meeting was in llonoluhi, .\ugust 18th. all the Commissioners present, 
the act of Congress providing for two residents of the island to serve, being 
i>resent. 

The Commission thereafter held its meetings in regular daily sessions in 
the former palace of the Hawaiian Government, now known as the "E.xecutive 
lluilding," of which due puldic notice was given. Certain times were arranged 
for the hearing of suggestions from the public and for the receiving of petitions 
or other papers which might be presented. A number of societies or associations, 
as well as individuals, appeared and were heard through their chosen representa- 
tives by the Commission: 

At designated times the Commission visited several of the most important 
islands of the Hawaiian group, in com])any with persons representing important 
agricultural and coniniereial interests and others representing the Government. 

The elaborate and exhaustive rejiort shows the incessant, thorough and intel- 
ligent industry of the Commissioners who visited the more important islands and 
spared no labor or pains in the course of their investigations. The documents 
they produced described the native Ilawaiians as a kindly, affectionate people, 
confiding, friendly and liberal, many of them childlike and easy in habits, and 
manners, willing to associate and intermarry with the European or other races, 
obedient to law and governmental authority. Many of the Japanese are contract 
laborers, who are engaged upon the sugar plantations. Others are employed as 
day laborers. There are some, however, who have become merchants and me- 
chanics, who conduct business for themselves, and who exhibit the national char- 
acteristics of skill, thrift, and ability. 

There are about 700 Chine.«e who have been naturalized into the Hawaiian 
Republic, ilany of the Chinese and Japane.se on the islands are, or have been, 
brought there under permits by that Government and contracts under which -they 
arc bound to work for a term of years and to return at the expiration of the 
contract term of service. At the expiration of their terms they are either returned 
to their native country or renew their labor contracts, or become day laborers. 

Xcarly all Chinese laborers desire and expect to go back to China at death. 



:i22 Till-; TKKHITORY OF HAWAII. 

if not before. The Japanese are not so particular as to returning; but with their 
accunuilative liabit.« they frequent!}' attain a position and standing in business 
which makes it desirable to them to remain in the islands. 

Tlie Americans, although in such a small minority, practically dominate the 
governmental affairs of the country, and, with tlie British and Germans, and part- 
blood Hawaiian-Americans together, constitute the controlling element in busi- 
ness. The Chinese and Japanese do not now possess political power, nor have 
they any important relation to the body jjolitic, except as laborers. The Portu- 
guese are largely immigrants from the islands and colonies of Portugal in the 
Atlantic, and have never been very clo.-;ely tied to their mother country. With 
the certain attrition which is Ijound to exist between them and the Americans in 
Hawaii, and under the influence of the existing public-school system, which 
makes the study of the English language compulsory, they promise to become 
a good class of people for the growth of republican ideas. 

It will, of course, be observed that this entire population of 110,000 is 
dominated, politically, financially, and commercially, by the American clement. 

It is duly stated in tlieir rejiort that the islands are distant from the equator 
about the same as tliat of Cuba. Tlie climate would probably be the same as 
tliat of Cuba were it not modified and equalized by the northeast trade winds, 
which ))revail for about nine months of the year, coming over thousands of miles 
of ocean uncontaminated by impurities. The Japanese gulf stream is a broad 
current of cool water, flowing like a river across the Pacific Ocean, which lowers 
the temperature within its vicinity materially. There are other somewliat ]ierma- 
nent currents and winds which affect temperature, and these great natural agencies 
tend constantly to neutralize the tropical heat, which would otherwise seriously 
affect the temperature of the islands. The annual average of temperature at 
Honolulu is 72° or 73° F., while the lowest is 55° and the highest 88°. During 
the warmest month of the year, September, the temperature, except for about 
two hours at midday, stands at about 78°. There is never any frost or snow, 
except upon the high mountain peaks, where at the altitude of nearly 14,000 
feet there are at times considerable snowfalls. 

The report possesses rare value, as it follows personal examination not only 
of the islands, but of all the history and official records and bears the stamp of 
resjjonsibility. We quote the passages especially that invite and occupy public 
attention: 

'"The frequent radical changes in the past years in the methods of control 
and of sales and leases and transfers of lanlds under the direction of the Crnwn — 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 223 

some made by royal order nr grant, some liy law, and some without much legal- 
ity or formality — have made it very dithcult to arrive at exact figures. We have, 
however, from the best sources available, obtained the following statements, which 
are approximately correct, but subject to amendment when full opportunity may 
present for critical examination and comjnitation. 

"In 1894 tb.e Crown lands, or the lands formerly belonging to the Mona:ch, 
were taken over to the Republic of Hawaii. They amounted on ilay 1, 1894, to 
971,463 acres, valued at $2,314,250. Those lands are now nearly all held by tenants 
under long leases, and for the year ending March 31, 1894, the rentals received 
were $49,268.75. The leases in force when the transfer of sovereignty from the 
ilonarchy to the Republic took ])lace have been recognized and the rental treated 
as Government income. As these leases expire the lands become available for 
settlement or lease, under the public land system. An estimate by the Govern- 
ment, September 30, 1897, of all Government lands and their value, shows an 
aggi-egate of 1,762,330 acres, worth $4,147,700, to which is to be added the value 
of lots in Honolulu and Ililo — old lots unleased and sites of fish market, custom- 
house, and reclaimed lots — in all estimated at $1,481,000, making a total value 
of $5,629,500. Since September 30, 1897, and up to August 12, 1898, patent 
grants in fee simple, conveying 8,860 acres of agricultural land, valued at $48,500, 
have been issued, so that the present total area is 1,772,640 acres and the total 
value is $5,581,000. 

"Values have, however, been rapidly appreciating, so that this estimate is 
a very moderate one. The leases now in force will expire at various dates and 
for various tracts from year to year until the year 1921, when all the leases 
issued under the Monarchy will terminate. 

"Before noting the peculiarities and characteristics of the several principal 
islands it is proper to state, generally, that all, without exception, are of volcanic 
origin, while extinct craters, volcanic cones, and extensive fields of lava are almost 
universal. 

"Kauai, the most northwesterly of the group, is nearly circular in form and 
about twenty-five miles in diameter, having an area of about 590 square miles. 
It is believed to be one of the oldest of the Hawaiian Islands; has a deeper soil 
and a greater proportion of naturally arable land. It seems to have l)een origi- 
nally formed by eruptions of ilount Waialeale, the great central peak 6,000 feet 
in height, a volcano which has been extinct from time immemorial. There are 
several mountain streams flowing from an elevated natural reservoir or lake in 
the central iilateau. 



224 THE TKIMMTORY OF HAWAII. 

"The valk'}-:; between tlie mountain ranges, wliich radiate from the interior, 
are broad and deep, having large areas of rieh bottom lands, very productive 
under the influence of irrigation, which is largely in use for the sugar plantations. 
Kauai was, in the remote past, a kingdom by itself, and the stories of kings 
and chiefs and warriors of Kauai are the traditional histories of the island. Lihue, 
the chief settlement, has about 3,500 inhabitants. The Falls of Wailua are 
romantically situated in the midst of a luxuriant forest, the river falling 180 feet 
in one unbroken sheet. t'ofVee, sugar, rice, and some other jiroducts are grown 
with ]irofit. The inhabitants of Kauai take much pride in their fertile lands. 

"Oahu, upon which is situated Honolulu, the capital city, is the most popu- 
lous of the islands, having over 40,000 inhabitants. It is devoted largely to 
pasturage and agriculture. Several very ]irolitable sugar plantations are now 
operated on this island, and the full development of the artesian water supply 
for the irrigation of growing sugar cane is here exhibited. During the past two 
years the yield of sugar upon one of the favorably situated plantations has exceeded 
expectation, amounting to from nine and one-half to ten and one-half tons of 
sugar per acre. Honolulu Harbor, although not large enough to accommodate a 
rajiidly growing commerce, is a deep-water opening through the coral reefs at 
the mouth of the Nuuanu \'alley, in front of the city of Honolulu. A few miles 
away is Pearl Harbor, a naturally excavated harbor, covering eight or ten square 
miles of water surface, and ranging from twenty to ninety feet deep. 

"It is expected that by a small appropriation a coral reef, which V)ars the 
entrance from the ocean for large vessels, will be removed by the Government 
of the Ignited States, whereupon this will furnish the best harbor on the Pacific. 
Some of the most beautiful and enchanting residence sites to be found are at 
Honolulu. A railway fifty-five miles in length connects Honolulu with Waialua 
and several intervening points. Several very prosperous business enterprises are 
established at Honolulu, and, altogether, the location, for many reasons, is a most 
desirable one for commercial and .shipping facilities. 

"ifolokai is a long, narrow island, about forty miles in length and less than 
ten miles in width. The eastern half of ^lolokai has some very wild mountain 
scenery, and in some places a luxuriant vegetation. Recently much attention 
has been given to irrigation from artesian water, and a large area is ex[)ected soon 
to be brought under profitable culture. Still, most of the island is devoted to 
pasturage. Quite a large number of deer have their haunts on this island. 

"The noted leper settlenient is situated on the north side of Molokai. There 
are about 1.200 lepers in the settlement, fed, clotlu'd, and cared for by the 



THE TKJfK'JTOKY. OF HAWAII. 225 

Government of Hawaii. A few devoted monks and nuns of the Franciscan order 
have the immediate personal care of the lepers. The peninsula on which the lepers 
are maintained contains about 5,000 acres of land, which is completely surrounded 
and separated from the world liy a turbulent ocean on the north and a range 
of impassable mountain heights on the south. 

"Maui is believed to Ije one of the oldest volcanic islands. Much of the lava 
of which it is composed has become decomposed and available for easy cultivation, 
while the use of artesian water for irrigation has made the sugar lands the most 
profitable known. This island has ujion it the great volcano of Haleakalau, now 
and for centuries entirely quiet, but which is the largest extinct volcano in the 
world. This crater is half a mile deep and twenty miles in circumference. 

''On this island artesian water is pumped in quantities of 0,000,000 gallons 
daily, to the height of 400 feet, for sugar irrigation. The lands on the south 
and west sides of the island are mostly cattle ranches and pasture lands,* while 
on the north and east the numerous streams furnish abundance of water for 
prosperous plantations of sugar and coffee. This island was once a kingdom. The 
town of Lahainn was its capital and contained the palaces of the king. Some 
of the plantations on this island were visited by us and were truly places of 
beauty. They evidenced great enterprise, and yield large profits from the great 
crops of sugar." 

As official re]iorters the ('(Uinnissioners have given most interesting reports of 
the great volcanic mountain- — the greater one, "The House of Fire," sixty miles 
in circumference at the ba.se — the distance from equator on the side t<i one on top 
being '^5 miles. The reporters say: 

"The .side slopes of these great mountains comprise practically all the agri- 
cultural land upon this island. This tan nearly all be cultivated after it is cleared 
from its luxuriant vegetation. Some of it, however, has such a rank growth of tree 
ferns, wild bananas, and all sorts of tropical trees and vines, as to require a cost 
of from $20 to $60 per acre to clear it. There are great fields of sugar cane on this 
island, the best nf which yields under favorable conditions from 5 to 8 or more 
t<ms of sugar per acre. 

"A large part of the volcanic soil is adapted to coffee growing, and produces 
the best coffee in the world. Many new plantations have been started in the last 
two or three years, and, as a rule, the older the trees the greater the yield of coffee, 
so that large profits are anticipated. Upon the sides of these great mountains, at 
the proper altitudes, almost all grades of temperature may be found, so that the 
vegetation of all countries mav be grown by exercisins care in the location selected. 



22G THE TEKKITUKY OF HAWAII. 

Any desired amount of rainfall may be obtained by selecting the proper altitude 
and location. On this point it may be said that a rainfall varying from a few inches 
to 1(3 feel annually may be secured by using a little care in selecting a location. 
In addition to the various crop products, it shoiild be stated that cattle raising is 
one of the principal industries upon some of the higher lands. There is nuich 
timber land also found on the mountain sides." 

The great harbor of tbe great hereafter in the Pacific — the pearl harljor — is 
described in these terms: 

"Although the harbor and limited roadstead of Honolulu have for a hundred 
years or so furnished the wharf privileges and anchorage ground for the numerous 
vessels of all classes which have visited the islands, there is already such a pressing 
demand for an early increase in harbor room, wharf area, and anchorage in the 
Honolulu harbor as to make necessary the immediate consideration of measures 
for acTditional harbors and wharves. 

"Within G or 7 miles of Honolulu lies Pearl Harbor, a most valuable feature 
of our Hawaiian acquisition. It is the only place capable of use as a naval station 
in the Xorth Pacific Ocean, except immediately upon the American coast It con- 
sists of an inland lake containing 8 square miles of water, about half of which is 
from 5 to 10 fathoms deep, admitting the largest ships. The remaining portion 
has a depth of from 2 to 4 fathoms. It is accessible from the sea by a passage a 
third of a mile in width, which, after a small amount of dredging, will become a 
safe and excellent entrance for vessels. 

"This harbor is many times larger than that of Honolulu, and it offers to the 
I'nited States facilities for the increase of Pacific and Oriental commerce the value 
of which can not be estimated. If the United States shall develop this desirable 
place, as it may easily do, it will afford the American Navy the most advantageous 
spot for a coaling station and naval depot to be obtained iinywhcre. 

_ "Xo other inclosed harbor exists in any grouji for tliousaiuls of miles north 
or south. One writer sa3's: 

"'The naval power owning Pearl Harbor will therefore Imld in complete mo- 
nopoly the mastery of the Pacific Ocean nortJi of the equator. Pearl Harbor is the 
chief jewel of the Hawaiian group.' 

"Owned now by the Fnitod States, it ofl'ers us the key to the commerce of 
China. Japan, and Australia." 

One of the most impressive jiassages of the report is this: 

"Commercial conditions of a country are so readily influenced by what at first 
may ajipear to be remote and unimportant enactments that the utmost sagacity is 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 227 

necessary in the preparation of laws for the promotion of commercial interests. 
The commerce between the United States and Hawaii, as well as the foreign com- 
merce of both, should be so protected by our navigation laws and vessel registry 
and by our roveniie legislation as to give to our country and to our newly acquired 
people all the advantages which should properly come to either. This is apparent.. 
We can not ignore a territory which grows, exports, and sells more than $] 5,000,000 
in value annually. The future of this new domain of industry can hardly yet be 
imagined. But when Pearl Harbor becomes the meeting place and the transfer 
depot of the ships of Russia, China, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and of the 
Atlantic liners which will steam through the Nicaragua Canal, commingling on 
the great Pacific with the vessels of the western coast of the American continent,, 
the genius of our country will preside over the traffic which is certain to come in 
the near future. As the conduct of a four months' war has produced such a re- 
arrangement of the methods and lines of the world's commerce, it is difficult to 
foretell what may be possible in a few years of peace in the future." 

The fish are abundant and excellent, those caught and used by the islanders, 
are all salt water fish, caught from the sea or the bays and harbors adjacent. There 
are nearly a hundred varieties, including shellfish, sold in the markets of the is- 
lands. Scarcely one of these varieties would be known or identified by Americans 
from its native name. Some of the varieties are of excellent quality, and the fish- 
eries promise to become an important industry in the future of the islands. 

The inventory of the real and personal property (exclusive of Government 
public lands) lately belonging to the Rejjublie of Hawaii and now in possession of 
the several departments and offices of the Republic, which inures to the United 
States by the act of annexation, valued by the departmental and bureau officials- 
of the Republic, amounts as follows: 

Department of the interior $4,612,766.66 

Judiciary department 80,098.00 

Finance office 5,100.00' 

Tax office T 1,218.12 

Customs bureau 3,456.2.5 

Postal bureau 8.067.99 

Audit bureau 557.00 

Department of foreign affairs 60,625.00 

Police department 17, .351. 00 

Total 4,789,240.02 

To this amount should be added the value of the Government or public lands, 
$4,147,700. and lots in Honolulu and Tliln, with unleased lots and sites of fish mar- 



9.28 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

ket, custom-liouBU, and reclaimed lots, worth $1,481,800, making the following 
aggregate valuation: 

Government or public lands J4, 147, 700.00 

Government lots, sites, etc 1,4S1,SC0.00 

Departmental property 4,789 240.02 

Aggregate 10,418,740.02 

It is ofScially stated that in the first si.x months of the year 1898 the Hawaiian 
Government collected from customs two hundred and forty thousand and thirty- 
eight dollars, eighty-eight cents. Under our tariff law there would have been col- 
lected on the same goods $669,636.97. The report goes largely into the discussion 
of the legislation recommended by the Commission. The first point being that the 
islands should be erected into "The Territory of Hawaii." The legislature is to 
be that of the territory of Hawaii, consisting of a senate and house of representa- 
tives. Section 4 of the bill provides that: "All white persons, including Portuguese, 
persons of African descent and all persons descended from the Hawaiian race on 
either the paternal or maternal sides who were citizens of the Republic of Hawaii 
immediately prior to the transfer of the sovereignty thereof to the United States 
are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States." 

The houses of the legislature are to organize and sit separatelj', and is to be 
elected at a general election to be held on the Tuesday ne.xt after the first Monday 
in November, 1899, and biennially thereafter. The supreme court is to be the 
judge of the legality of election to a seat in either house in cases of contest, and 
the sole judge of who has been elected. Xo member of the legislature is to be 
eligible for appointment or election to any office of the Territory, and no officer 
or employe, notary public, or agent of the Territory shall be eligible to election 
as a legislator; and no person who, having been entitled to qualify and vote prior 
to October, 1897, and since July, 1894, failed to register as such voter, shall have 
a vote, unless he shall take an oath to support the Constitution of the United 
States. 

Every officer of the Territory and every member of the legislature shall take 
a prescribed oath to support the Constitution and laws of the United States. 

Legislators shall receive $400 for each regular session, in addition to 10 cents 
a mile each way as mileage, and $300 for each e.xtra session. 

In voting for representatives in the legislature, each voter may cast as many 
votes as there are representatives to be elected from his district, and may cast them 
all for one representative, or apportion them among the representatives as he shall 
see fit, avoiding fractional division? of a vote. 






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FLUME USED TO CONVEY WATER TO SUGAR MILLS IN HAWAIL 




SURF BOAT USED BY THE NATIVES OF HONOLULU. 



THE TEERITOEY OF HAWAII. 231 

The membership of the senate is fixed at 15, to hold office for four years, but 
providing that of the senators elected at the first general election 2 from the first 
district, 1 from the second, 3 from the third, and 1 from the fourth district shall 
hold for two years only. The districts are si}ecifically described, and the following 
number of senators apjiortioned to each: 

First district 4 

Second district 3 

Third district 6 

Fourth district 2 



A senator must be a male citizen of the United States, 30 years of age, have 
resided in the Territory three years, be the owner in his own right of $3,000 worth 
of property, or have during the preceding year received $1,000 income. 

The membershi]) of the house of representatives is fixed at 30, to be elected 
every second year from six districts, composed as specified, giving the first, second, 
and sixth districts each 4 representatives, and the third, fourth, and fifth districts 
each G representatives. 

To be eligildc for election as representative a person shall have attained the 
age of 25 years; be a male citizen of the United States; have resided in the Terri- 
tory three years, and shall either own jiroperty in the Territory worth $500 or have 
received a money income of not less than $350 during the preceding year. 

To be qualified to vote for representative, a person — • 

(j) Shall be a male citizen of the I'nitcd States; 

(2) Have resided in the Territory for one year preceding, and in the district 
ihree months preceding the time he offers to register; 

(3) Shall have attained the age of 21 years; 

(4) Prior to the election during the time prescribed by law havi' caused his 
name to be entered on the register of voters for representative for his district; 

(5) Prior to such registration have paid on or before March 31 next preceding 
the date of registration all taxes due by him to the government; 

(()) Be able understandingly to speak, read, and write the English or Hawaiian 
language. 

To be qualified to vote for senators, a person must possess all the qualifications 
and be subject to all the conditions required by this act for voters for representa- 
tives, and, in addition thereto, shall own and possess in his own right real j)roperty 
worth $1,000, upon which valuation legal taxes shall have been paid for the year 
preceding that in which he offers to register, or shall have actually received a 



232 TIIK T!:i;i;iT()i;V Ol- HAWAII. 

money income of not less than $G0() during the year next preceding the 1st day of 
April next preceding the date of such registration. 

Five new boards of registration, of three members each, shall be appointed by 
the governor, with the advice of the senate, for terms of four years, for the five 
registration districts composed as specified, to take the place of the existing boards 
of registration. Such new registration boards shall meet to register persons enti- 
tled to vote for senators and representatives at such times between August 31 and 
October 10, 18J)9, and each second year thereafter, as may be necessary to enable 
them to register all persons entitled to registry. Personal appearance of an ap])li- 
cant is required to entitle him to registry. 

The first session of the legislature shall convene at Honolulu on the third 
Wednesday in February, 1900. 

Sessions not to continue longer than sixty days. 

The offices of president, minister of foreign affairs, finance, public instruction, 
auditor-general, deputy auditor-general, surveyor-general, and marshal are abol- 
ished. 

The bill contains provisions for the government of the Territory, giving it 
executive, legislative, and judicial officers. A governor, secretary of the Territory, 
a United States district judge, a United States district attorney, and a United States 
marshal are to be appointed by the President, and an internal-revenue district and 
a customs district are created. 

The governor shall possess the veto power, and may veto specific items in bills 
which appropriate money for specific purposes. The two houses may override the 
veto by a two-thirds vote. 

The legislature may create town, city, or county municipalities. 

An appropriation of $5,000 is recommended to enable the United States Fish 
Commissioner to examine the status of the fi.shing rights and to report upon the fish- 
eries of the Territory. 

It also provides that foreign goods and articles inqidrtcd into the islands after 
July 7, 1898, shall, if afterwards brought into the United States, pay the same 
duties charged upon like articles when imported from any foreign country. 

It also provides for the election of a Delegate to the Ilouse of Tfepresentatives 
in Congress, for each Congress, by the voters qualified to vote for representatives 
in the legislature, this delegate to ]iossess the same powers and ])rivileges now 
accorded to other delegates in Congress. 

The existing laws of Hawaii not inconsistent with the Constitution and the 



THE TERRITOKY OF HAWAII. 233 

laws of the United States or of tliis act shall continue in force, subject to repeal 
or amendment by the legislature of Hawaii or by Congress. 

The laws of Hawaii relating to public or Government lands continue in force 
until changed by Congress. No leases of agricultural lands shall, however, be 
granted, sold, or renewed for a longer term than live years, unless Congress shall 
direct. The officers of the Territory shall be an attorney-general, with similar pow- 
ers and duties as now possessed by the attorney-general of the Republic of Hawaii, 
e.xcept as changed by this act or by the legislature, and a treasurer, with similar 
powers and duties to the present minister of finance, and such powers and duties 
regarding licenses, corporations, companies, and partnerships, and registration of 
prints, labels, and trade-marks as are now possessed by the minister of the interior, 
exce])t as changed by this act or by the legislature; also a superintendent of public 
works, a superintendent of public instruction, an auditor and a deputy auditor, a 
surveyor, with the powers and duties of a surveyor-general, and a chief sheriff to 
succeed to the duties of marshal of the Repuljlic, are to be appointed by the gov- 
ernor. 

The laws of Hawaii relating to agriculture and forestry are continued in force, 
except as they may be modified by Congress or the legislature. The Secretary of 
Agriculture is charged with the duties of examining the laws of Hawaii relating to 
agriculture, forestry, public lands, and public roads and reporting thereon to the 
President. 

There shall also be appointed by the governor a chief justice and two associate 
justices of the supreme court, the judges of the circuit court, the members of the 
board of health, commissioners of public instruction, prison inspectors, boards of 
registration, inspectors of election, and other public boards that may be created by 
law, and all officers whose salaries exceed $2,000 per annum. 

The bill provides that the Constitution and laws of the United States locally 
applicable shall have the same force and effect in the Territory of Hawaii as else- 
where in the United States. This is the usual provision found in the acts of Con- 
gress providing for the establishment of Territorial governments in tlie United 
States heretofore. Such a provision is very important in this bill for many reasons, 
among which may be mentioned the continued importation of coolie labor into 
Hawaii. It has been the policy of the Government of Hawaii, before and since the 
establishment of the Republic, to import men under labor contracts for a term of 
years, at the expiration of which they are to return to the countries from which 
they came. Those brought in are mainly from China and Japan. 

Since the act of Congress annexing Hawaii was passed prohibiting Chinese 



234 THE TEEKITORY OF HAWAII. 

immigration tlie Hawaiian sugar planters have seemed to be making an unusual 
effort in securing tlie importation ot Japanese laborers, fearing trouble and em- 
barrassment on account of insufficient labor for the care and carrying on of their 
sugar plantations. Of course it becomes necessary to extend our labor laws over the 
islands, so as to prohibit all kinds of foreign contract labor from coming to the 
Territory, first, because it is the policy of this country to keep out all kinds of cheap 
foreign labor, including coolie labor, and thereby prevent such labor from inter- 
fering with the wages of American labor, and, secondly, to protect our manufactured 
]iroducts from competition with manufactured goods produced by cheap alien labor. 
The general laws of the United States will place the people of the Territory on the 
same footing with the people of the States and of other Territories of the United 
States in regard to foreign labor. 

The question whether white labor can be profitably utilized in the sugar jilan- 
tations is yet a problem; but the planters are preparing to give such labor a trial, 
and some of them believe it will jirove superior to the labor of either Chinese or 
Japanese. 

The majority of the commission have not been able to agree with the sugges- 
tions of those who favor the cTeation of a "cabinet," or "advisory council," to aid 
the Territorial governor in his administration of the affairs of the Territory of 
Hawaii. The commission hold however proper and convenient it might be to pro- 
vide such an auxiliary as a "cabinet" for the governor of a State, or for the chief 
executive of a country, that it is unnecessary in a Territorial government, which 
is itself merely a subordinate and limited authority, under the close sui)ervision of 
the President of the United States. The history of the Territories of the 
United States, covering many years of experience, has not, in the opinion of the 
commission, shown a necessity for the creation of any number of advisors. The 
powers of a Territorial governor are likely to be so clearly defined by the legislation 
of Congress and the laws of the Territory that there will hardly be need for such 
an establishment as an "executive" or "advisory" council. 

The fact that such a proposition is urged by a gentleman of great experience 
and wisdom, who has lieen of tlie greatest service in the past history of Hawaii in 
behalf of order and good government, has called the most careful attention of the 
commission to the subject, but we are unable to see that there is a logical demand 
or need for such an addition to the Territorial establishment of the United States. 
The argument that the Territorial governor might, arbitrarily, at the close of a ses- 
sion of a legislature, remove the heads of dejiartments, or other officials from office 
and commission new ones, whose commissions would be valid until the end of the 



THE TKKEITOKY OF HAWAII. 235 

next session of the senate, or nearly two years, does not strike the commission as 
being a valid reason for staying the hand of a governor who is responsible directly 
to the President of the United States for his acts, and whose otficial existence is 
subject to the will of the President. 

It is possible that the reasons presented by the minority of the commission 
might be deemed vital and important if the Territorial administration was sover- 
eign and not subordinate in character. We believe, however, that if the system 
proposed by the bill shall in practice prove to be obnoxious to the claim of the mi- 
nority it will then be ample time for Congress to change the proposed system. 

Much has been said to the effect that the policy or scheme of government for 
the Hawaiian Islands will be taken and accepted as an index or precedent to be 
followed in the plan of government for Porto Rico and the Philippines. In view 
of this apparent expectation or belief on the part of many good people in the United 
States, the commission deem it proper to say that the people of Hawaii are capable 
of self-government, and have proven this by the establishment of the Republic of 
Hawaii and the adoption of a constitution and code of laws which will compare 
favorably with those of any other government, and under such constitution and 
laW'S have maintained a stable government for several years worthy of a free people. 
The people of those islands are more or less familiar with the institutions and laws 
of the United States, while the laws of the little Repulilic are largely taken from 
the laws of this country. 

It can not be said that either the Porto Ricans or the Filipinos are at all 
familiar with our system of government, or with any other based on the principles 
of liberty. 

The underlying theory of our Government is the right of self-government, and 
a people must bo fitted for self-government before they can be trusted with the re- 
sponsibilities and duties attaching to free government. 

These remarks are made to negative the idea that because the people of the 
Hawaiian Islands can, in the judgment of the commission, be consistently given 
self-government to an extent almost equal to that given the people in the States, 
it can not be safely inferred that other insular possessions which the United States 
have, or may acquire by treaty with Spain, can be granted equal freedom in gov- 
ernment. 

In the organization of the commission, the following cummittees were raised 
to consider and report upon various matters of im])ortance: 

1. Agriculture — ]\lr. Dole. 

2. Cables and Telegraphs — ilr. ]\Iorgaii and ^Ir. Frcar. 



236 THK TERRITOKY OF HAWAII. 

3. Claims — Mr. Frcar and ili. Ilitt. 

4. Corporations — Mr. Hitt and Mr. Dole. 

5. Education — Mr. Cullom, Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Frear. 

G. Finance — Mr. Cullom, Mr. Morgan, Mr. Ilitt, Mr. Dole, and Mr. Frear. 

7. Fisheries — Mr. Frear and Mr. Morgan. 

8. Harbors and Coasts — Mr. Dole and Mr. Ilitt. 

9. Health and Quarantine — Mr. Morgan and Mr. Frear. 

10. Immigration and Labor— Mr. Cullom, Mr. ihutian, and ilr. Dole. 

11. Local Taxation — Mr. Frear and Mr. Hitt. 
li. Postal Service — Mr. Hitt and Mr. Frcar. 
13. Public Debt— Mr. Dole. 

11. Public Lands — Mr. Cullom, Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Dole. 

1."). Public Property — Mr. Frear. 

lii. Tariff and Internal Revenue — Mr. Hitt ami Mr. Dole. 

17. Judiciary — Mr. Morgan and Mr. Frear. 

IS. Local and Executive Offices — Mr. Dole and Mr. Frear. 

l!i. Committee to Draft Bill.'^— Mr. Cullom. .Mr. Dole, and Mr. Hitt. 

The reports made by these committees in part supplied the information which 
has enal)led the commission to prepare and agree upon the bill which is herewith 
presented, "To provide a government for the Territory of Hawaii," and are printed 
in the appendix. 

The commission also presents two additional bills, the passage of which is 
made necessary by the existing conditions. One of these is entitled "A bill relating 
to Hawaiian silver coinage and treasury notes." It provides that unmutilated Ha- 
waiian silver coins shall be received at par value in payment of all dues to the gov- 
ernment of the Territory of Hawaii and of the United States, and shall not again 
be issued, but shall on presentation in sums of $500 to either government be pur- 
chased and rccoined as bullion at the United States mint at San Francisco. All 
Hawaiian silver certificates shall be redeemed by the Territory of Hawaii on or 
before January 1, 1902. 

The other is entitled "A bill relating to jiostal savings banks in Hawaii," 
which repeals the Hawaiian laws establishing postal savings banks, and directs the 
Secretary of the Treasury to pay the amounts on deposit in the postal savings banks 
in Hawaii to the persons entitled thereto, terminating the interest on all deposits 
on and after the 1st of July. 1809, and forbidding further dej)osifs after tliat date. 

The commission has performed the work assigned to it by the President under 



THE TEKRITOKY OF HAWAII. 237 

the joint resolution providing for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, and they 
-venture to express the hope that it may be deemed satisfactory Ijy Congress and 
the country. S. M. CULLOM, Chairman. 

MINORITY REPORT. 

BY PRESIDENT DOLE. 

With the exception herein stated, I substantially indorse the majority report of 
the commission. 

It has been a matter of sincere gratification to me tluit its work has been upon 
conservative lines, and that the Hawaiian civil system — the result of sixty years 
of growth — has been so slightly affected by its conclusions. 

I have, however, been compelled to differ from my associates in relation to 
certain features of the executive power of the Territory as recommended In' them. 

The political troubles of the Hawaiian community, culminating in the downfall 
of the mimarchy, were uuiinly due to tlie persistent effort of successive sovereigns 
to acquire unlimited personal power. 

I'pon the organization of the Rejiuljlie of Hawaii great pains were taken to 
eliminate the possibility of a return of such source of public danger. The expe- 
rience gained in the administration of the Provisional Government was of great 
assistance in working out this problem. 

The system adopted placed the executive power in a council of five persons, 
made up of the President and the heads of the four executive departments. Action 
by the executive council requires a majoritv. including the president's vote. The 
heads of "the executive departments are the constitutional advisers of the president 
upon questions of pidjlic policy, appointments, and other matters of importance, 
and are appointed and removed by him, with the approval of the senate. The 
president and three members of the cabinet may remove the fourth memlier. The 
heads of the executive departments have the appointment and removal of the heads 
of the executive bureaus in their resjiective departments, subject to the ajtproval 
of the president. The heads of the bureaus have the appointment and removal of 
their subordinate officers, subject to the approval of the heads of the departments 
to which their respective bureaus belong. 

It was considered impracticable to hold an executive officer responsible for the 
successful administration of his department or bureau without giving him substan- 
tially the selection of his immediate subordinates. 

This system has worked satisfactorily, giving the government the confidence of 
the I'ublic. 



238 TIIK TERRITORY OF HAWAII 

While, with some misgivings, I have assented to the provisions of the majority 
report, which ]>lace the executive power of the Territory in the hands of one indi- 
vidual and do away with the executive council, I am unable to acccj)t those which 
confer upon the governor the appointment of all subordinate officers, and which, 
while giving him the appointment of heads of departments, with the ajiproval of 
the senate, permit him to remove them without such approval, a power not enjoyed 
by the President of the United States. Nor can I agree to the absence of any pro- 
visions whatever limiting or checking the governor's executive power under the laws, 
ex-cepting as to the approval of the senate required in certain appointments. 

The weight of these objections will be better understood in view of the recom- 
mendation of the commissioners that the legislature shall hold regular sessions but 
once in two years, as heretofore, which circumstance would furnish the governor 
with the opportunity, if he should choose to utilize it, of removing any or all heads 
of departments immediately after the termination' of the regular session of the 
legislature and filling their places with persons whose commissions would be valid 
until the end of the next session of the senate, which might not occur for nearly 
two years. By this means a governor, acting within his authority, could substan- 
tially evade the provision recpiiring these appointments to be approved by the 
senate. 

Performances of like character under the monarchy arc too fresh m the minds 
of the Hawaiian community to permit tlicm to contemplate without dismay the 
possibility of a repetition thereof. 

The governor, under the provisions of the act recommended by the commis- 
sion, will have less check to his administration of affairs than was the case. with the 
sovereigns under the monaixhy, excepting only in the matter of tenure of office. 
Moreover, the features of the existing Hawaiian civil sj'stem, which compel a cer- 
tain amount of publicity in all administrative acts, are swept away, and the gov- 
ernor may act in absolute secrecy, or, if he shall be so inclined, with the advice and 
under the influence of any persons he may choose to admit to his deliberations. 

This feature of the proposed executive status, it will be seen, might expose the 
governor to influence hostile~to the public good, and possibly to great and con- 
stantly recurring temptations to subordinate jjublic to private interests. 

The provision of the Hawaiian .system which compels the president to consult 
his constitutional advisers lessens this danger. 

Besides, this beneficial result of the existing system is the safeguard that it 
guarantees to the administration of public atl'airs through the diminished liability 
of the best of men to make mistakes when assisted by the judgment of others. 



THE TEKRITORY OF HAWAII. 23;> 

Hawaiian administration of affairs includes the conduct of a land system which 
jjrovides for the disposal of the public lands in different ways and in areas varying , 
in extent and often of great value, whicli arc sometimes so situated as to be of pro- 
nounced importance to the public interests of agriculture and forestry. 

It is submitted that it is most desirable that the consideration of these ques- 
tions should not be left to the private judgment of one man, unassisted save perhaps 
by the jiressing demands of capitalists and corporations. 

And President Dole submitted an amendment on these lines, recommending a 
board of advisors to the governor of the Territory, and he recommends that the 
treasurer, attorney general, superintendent of public works and the commissioner 
of public lands shall be constituted special counselors of the governor, to be con- 
sulted by him concerning all nuitters of puljlic policy. 

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON IMMIGRATION AND LABOR. 

At an early date there were occasional visits of Chinese people to Hawaii. A 
few individual Chinese had, as early as 1845, been permitted to intermarry with 
Hawaiians, and the interior department of Hawaii has records showing the naturali- ' 
zation of one "Arsing" in that year. An oath of allegiance was required before an 
alien could marry a Hawaiian. In the past fifty years there have been about 700 
Chinese naturalized as Hawaiian citizens. The children of some of the earlier Chi- 
nese residents, resulting from their intermarriages with Hawaiian citizens, have 
become prominent in the social and business life of Hawaii, and, as stated by a 
well-known observer, the blending of the Chinese and Hawaiian bloods has pro- 
duced beneficial results. Many of these children have been educated at the best 
English schools and in the colleges and universities of the United States. A large 
number have proved worthy of the education bestowed upon them, and not less than 
fifty have found employment in government and business offices and mercantile 
houses in Honolulu alone. Some of these earlier Chinese immigrants in Hawaii 
have, by naturalization and intermarriage, become land and property owners and 
good citizens. This element of Chinese origin must not, however, be confounded 
with or mistaken for those who came to Hawaii simply as laborers under contract 
for a specific term of years authorized, limited, and controlled by the government. 

The immigration of Chinese laborers began in 1852, and grew out of what was 
thought to be the necessities of the people, owing to the decline of the number of 
Hawaiian laborers. About that time the Royal Ha\yaiian Agricultural Society 
issued a circular suggesting the introduction of Chinese coolie labor, and in Jan- 



240 TllK TEKPJTOin' OF HAWAII. 

uary, 1852, the hark Thetis, brought, under agreement, 180 coolies from China. 
'This experiment was deemed satisfactory Ijy the society, and thereafter, up to Jan- 
uary, 186G, there were 1,306 Chinese imported, of whom 54 were women and 5 were 
children. From 1866 to the present time, the Government and various organiza- 
tions interested in the labor question have looked after the importation of laborers 
from other countries besides China. In all three nationalities, Chinese, Japanese, 
and the Portuguese colonies, have been drawn upon. The two former still continue 
to furnisji large numbers of lal)orcrs, while Portuguese immigration Las apparently 
ceased. 

The Hawaiian Government, in 1864, passed an act creating a bureau of immi-" 
gration for the purpose of superintending the inspection of imported foreign labor- 
ers and the introduction of immigrants as laborers. Ordinances were issued b}' the 
King authorizing the bureau of immigration to take steps to promote the introduc- 
tion into the kingdom of free immigrants from the Portuguese colonies, the Azores, 
the Canary Islands, the Cape Yerde Islands, and from "any of the islands of the 
Pacific Ocean." The Hawaiian bark R. W. Wood was ordered chartered to proceed 
to China to obtain a cargo of Chinese laborers, at the expense of the bureau of im- 
migration. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE OX CABLES AND TELEGRAPHS. 

The committee on cables and telegraphs have investigated the subject of tele- 
graphic cable comnuuiication between Hawaii and the Continent, and between the 
islands, and respectfully sulimit the following report: 

JOHN T. MORGAN. 

W. F. FREAR. 

REPORT. 

No calculation that is approximately accurate can now be safely made of the 
income of a postal-telegraph line to the Hawaiian Islands from the continent or 
between the islands. 

It can be safely assumed, however, tliat the necessity for such a cable line is 
iudis] ensable and that its cost will bear only a >liglit relation to the commercial and 
military advantages that must result from its construction. 

In many other instances the income of our postal system has been quite below 
the cost of the transmission of the mails between certain distant commercial or 
strategic points, and such deficit has been supplied from the general Treasury, with 
the cheerful approbation of the country. 



THE TEEinTOKY OF HAWAII. 241 

If the demand for a postal telegraph line to Hawaii is sutficient, on the general 
grcnnds cf national policy, the question of the duty to take national control of 
the line can not be met by the suggestion tliat this is a new departure in furnish- 
ing the vehicles, or conduits, for the transmission of postal matter. It is not, in 
fact, a new thing for the United States to construct lines of telegraph, or conduits, 
for the purposes of the Army, or the Weather and Life Saving Service, or for the 
distribution of mails in large cities. 

But the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands has created a new situation which 
requires new provisions for the quick dispatch of intelligence such as is ordinarily 
sent by the mails. 

There is, indeed, no feature of the postal service that is more necessary, in 
peace or war, for the benefit of commerce, navigation, markets, and exchanges, or in 
conveying personal intelligence between the people, or in giving them protection 
against the ravages of infectious diseases, than a cable between the Pacific States 
and the Hawaiian Islands under the impartial and exclusive control of the Gov- 
ernment of the I'nited States. 

In the outset of the new policy that we must inaugurate to meet the remark- 
able events of the year 1898 it is a fortunate situation that places these islands and 
others under the exclusive legislative control of Congress. 

Congress can rightfully and successfully adjust the public institutions of a 
State in its formative period so as to prepare it for the highest usefulness to the 
Union when it shall acquire the sovereign rights and dignity of statehood. 

Without attempting to state the many instances in which Congress sliould em- 
ploy these powers, it is very clear that in matters relating to interstate and foreign 
commerce, to navigation, bays, harbors, wharves, and docks, and to postal facilities 
and post roads and lines of telegraphic communication, the power is clear and the 
duty is manifest. 

An indisi)ensable factor in all commercial, military, and diplomatic relations 
with countries that are beyond the seas is the telegraph cables that convey informa- 
tion with immediate dispatch. 

This fact is too oljvious and is too vital to the safety of every maritime country 
to admit of discussion. • 

It may be safely stated that at no point in the world is there greater need for 
a central cable station than at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, nor is there any point in 
either of the great oceans where the control of lines of telegraiihic cables will give 
greater influence to the power that directs the use of them, either in commerce or 
war. 



242 Till-; TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

A central calilc station in Hawaii will iiltiniattly form a plexus of telegraphic 
lines in which the caliles will meet from all ports of the great circuit of our coasts 
and from the Asiatic coasts as far south as Hongkong; and from Hawaii lines will 
radiate through the islands of the South Pacific to the Philippines, to Australia, 
and the coast of Soutli America. 

In these advantages the Hawaiian group has no competitor, and iIrv could 
scarcely have been more advantageously placed as a point for the concentration of 
lines of telegraph cables. Through a long period of years these benefits will neces- 
sarily increase, and will furnish to the people facilities of cheap correspondence 
that no lines of steamers can afford. 

In dispensing with the slow and costly methods of mail transmission for busi- 
ness correspondence, the rates will lie reduced and the speed increased until it will 
attract the universal jiatronage of business men. 

A single line of cable from the coast to Hawaii, exclusively authorized to con- 
vey messages as postal matter, would soon become a "trunk line," and would gather 
business from Asia and tlie islands of the South Pacific in such volume as to pay 
the interest on the cost and all expenditures for repairs and operation. It could 
have no competitor in business and could afford this facility to business at a rate 
of tolls that would be a great economy. 

The five larger islands of the Hawaiian group are separated Ijy three chan- 
nels that aggregate about 118 miles in width. To maintain a rapid communication 
across these channels, which are rough water, not less than six vessels would need 
to l)e constantly employed, with a reserve of two or three vessels to meet emergen- 
cies. The crews for these vessels, and the fuel, to be supplied from the coast, would 
justify a heavy expenditure for mail service which could not jirobably be reduced 
l)y comjietition. 

The conformation of these islands is .^uch that a plateau connects all of them, 
on which a cable can be laid in water of shallow depths as compared with those of 
the adjacent seas. 

The trend of the islands from Kaui Island on the northwest to the southern 
part of Hawaii virtually ])resents a frontage of about 350 miles to the Pacific 
Ocean on each side of the group, along the whole length of uhich the cable sta- 
tions on the island would be so many outlooks upon the sea. 

If this cable .system is extended to Samoa, and to the Carolines and Manila, 
the security it would afl'ord our coasts against sudden attack and the ravages of 
approaching storms and the visitations of epidemic diseases is a matter that is 
wortliv of serious cfuisideration. 



TUE TKKKITOEY OF HAWAII. 24:5 

The experience of European countries in the use of electric telegraphs as 
vehicles of the postal service demonstrates their importance and the wise economy 
of their use both to the people and the Governments that employ them. 

AVitli tlio distinctive power conferred upon Congress in the Constitution to 
establish post-offices and post-roads, and the exclusive power to provide for and 
regulate all mail communications, there can be no question of the power of 
Congress to select the best and most economical means for this work, or that the 
convej'ance of mails may be extended into any part of the world, or that Con- 
gress may use a cable line under the seas as well as a post-road on the land. 

This is the propitious time for the initiation of this service in the Pacific 
Ocean, and Hawaii is the central point in the great are of the circle that describes 
the coast of North America. 

At this central point all cable lines through the Pacific Ocean to points 
north of the equator must unite. Under the present state of the art in the 
construction and operation of transoceanic cable lines, this group of islands is 
the only place where a line can be successfully operated in the North Pacific Ocean. 
This fact, while it reinains unchanged, gives to a cable connecting Hawaii with 
the continent an immense volume of work, which must yield a great revenue, if 
po other cable is constructed. 

The annexed rough draft of the relative location of the islands (not includ- 
ing Xeckar Island), prepared by a gentleman of much ability, shows the distances 
between them and the depth of water on the connecting plateaus, with an estimate 
of the cost of the cable to connect them. 

The eagerness of private investors to lay cables to Hawaii and to connect the 
islands, under contracts with the Government for supplying cable service for 
official messages, is a convincing proof that under such conditions they would 
be valuable property. 

Aside from the fact that in a few years the Government business would 
refund the cost of the cables, if paid for at ordinary rates, it is of supreme impor- 
tance that the Government should have the absolute military control of the line 
that does its work. 

To he able to control the working of the cable only through the enforcement 
of legal penalties for crimes incident to this responsible branch of the public 
service would be a serious defect that might result in much trouble and a 
dangerous exposure to treachery. 



244 THE TEEEITORY OF HAWAII. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE OX FINANCE. 
THE HAWAIIAN CURRENCY. 

The rrold coins of tlie I'liiti'd States are the only nnliniited k\i;al tender. 
(Civil Laws, sec. 6G5.) 

Hawaiian silver coins are legal tender for amounts not exceeding $10. United 
States dimes and half dimes are also legal tender in limited amounts. (Civil 
Laws, sees. 6G6 and GG7.) 

COINAGE. 

During the years 18S4, 1885, and 18SG the following Hawaiian coins were 
put in circulation, having theretofore been coined at the United States mint in San 
Francisco (Biennial Report ^linister of Finance. 1890, p. 7): 

Dollars 500.000 

Halves , 350,000 

Quarters 125,000 

Dimes 25,000 

This is the only Hawaiian coinage ever executed. 
PAPER CURRENCY. 

By Session Laws 1895, act 19 (Civil Laws, sees. GT2-G?5), the Minister of 
Finance was authorized to issue gold and silver certificates of deposit, upon set- 
ting aside sufficient of the respective coins for the payment of such certificates. 
The act also provided for the retirement of all outstanding certificates of deposit. 

Under this authority certificates of deposit have been issued to the amount 
of $272,500, for the redemption of which silver coin is now held in the treasury. 
These certificates have been issued in the following denomitiations: 

5 dollars $12,500 

10 dollars 35,000 

20 dollars 50,000 

50 dollars 75.000 

100 dollars 100,000 

There remains outstanding of old issues of silver certificates made under 
former laws a total amount of $39,500. No record remains in the office of the 
finance department showing the denominations of these certificates, but silver 
coins are on deposit in the treasury for their redemption. 

Although authorized by the act above cited, no gold certificates have been 



Tin: TERRITORY OF HAWAII. Mi/ 

issued. The Hawaiian L'un'ency cons'sts therefore of silver coins amounting to- 
$1,000,000, of which $312,000 is in circulation in the form of silver certificates. 

Hawaiian currency in the treasury at this date (August 23, 1898), exclusive 
of silver held for redemption of certificates, is approximately $101,500. 

By the statutes authorizing coinage of silver (Session Laws 1880, chap. 37, 
and Session Laws 1892, chap. 8), all coins were required to he made of the same 
weight and fineness as the United States coins of the same value. 

S. M. CULLOM. 



Hon. Sanford B. Dole, 

Of the Hawaiian Commission. 
Sir: In the year 1883, by act of the Legislature of the Hawaiian Government, 
the sum of $1,000,000 was authorized to be issued m Hawaiian silver currency. 
This amount was coined by the United States mint of the same weight and fineness 
as the corresponding amount in United States silver currency. The denominations 
were: 

l-dollar pieces $500,000 

50-cent pieces 350,000 

25-cent pieces 125,000 

Dimes 25,000 

Total $1,000,000 

Of this amount the dime has practically gone out of circulation. Of the 
entire amount a fair estimate would bo that $50,000 (including the dimes) have 
gone out of circulation and disappeared. There remains, therefore, the sum of 
$950,000, approximately, in Hawaiian silver currency that are legal tender under 
the present laws and institutions of this country to the amount of $10 in any one 
payment. This currency, however, is only of value to the remaining portions of 
the L'nited States as its pure silver bears to the piece, based on the current value 
of silver for the day. 

While your honorable body is considering the subject of the obligations of 
this Government, I desire to call your attention to the subject of its withdrawal 
from circulation and substitution by a coin that would be legal tender in all 
parts of the United States. 

Owing to the nature of the population of this country silver will always 
be used here to a greater or less extent, and I desire to press upon your attention 



246 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

the necessity of considering this important subject while the Hawaiian Com- 
mission is in session. 

I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, 

S. M. DAMOX, 

Minister of Finance. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FISHERIES. 

Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands, September 7, 1898. 
Hon. Shelby M. CuUom, 

Chairman of the Hawaiian Commis.^ion. 

Sir: Your committee on fisheries respectfully submit the following report: 

Each of these islands may be roughly described as consisting of one or more 
central lofty mountains with .-ides sloping rapidly toward the sea. There are 
naturally few lakes or ponds, and these are of inconsiderable size. The streams, 
while numerous, are of small volume, short and of rapid fall. Much of the coast 
line is skirted with a coral reef, between which and the shore there is a space of 
shallow water. From the reef, and wliere there is no reef from the shore, the 
water deepens rapidly. 

As might be expected, there are few fish in the streams and lakes, and these 
are of little value. They belong, as at common law, to the owners of the soil 
under the streams and lakes. 

There was formerly little animal food upon the land, and, consequently, 
the natives, who lived mostly along the coast, looked to the sea as their chief 
source of animal food. It followed that their sea fisheries were regarded as among 
their most valuable properties. These were closely connected with the ownership 
of land; indeed, tjiey were regarded as apjiurtenances to the adjoining or neigh- 
boring lands, and the laws or customs governing them can be explained only by 
reference to the sy.-;tem of land tenures formerly existing, which was of a feudal 
nature. 

Without going into too great detail, the land may be said to have been 
divided up into large tracts and small tracts. The large tracts co.nmonly included 
a stri]i of land extending from the summit or well up on the slopes of the central 
mountain of an island to the sea. These were called ahupuaas and were owned 
by chiefs or lords, called konohikis. \\'itliin these were the smaller tracts, called 
kuleauas, occupied by the common peoj)le, who were regarded as tenants of the 
owners of the larger tracts. There were also other tracts, generally intermediate 
in size, called ilis, some of which were indej)endent, like the larger tracts, and 




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49. firnup of Native Dancers in Ati-.Ati. 50. Briiiee over the Latiune in Santa Cruz. 51. Types of the 
Masspsof the hilipinos. 52. (jnndiiw Native Rice. 53. Native Wood choppers. 54. Wumeuot Balaeas 
WasluuKl lothes. ao. A feugar Cart in Bataneas Province. 50. A Shepherd of Carabaos. 

VIEWS FROM THE PHILIPPINES. 




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THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 24U 

others of which were subordinate, like the smaller tracts. The King was lord 
over all. 

As lord paramount the King could take and redistribute the fishing rights as 
well as the lands of his subjects. This he did in 1839, taking all fishing grounds 
and giving one portion of them to the common people, one portion to the land- 
lords, and reserving one portion for himself, at the same time prescribing certain 
restrictions and regulations under which the rights thus conferred were to be exer- 
cised. This was done by statute, the provisions of which, as amended from time 
to time, are still in force. In 1846 and the following few years the change was 
made from the feudal system to that of several ownership, and titles were awarded 
by commissioners to quiet land titles to those who proved ownership or right of 
occupancy under the pre-existing system. * In a few cases titles to fisheries were 
awarded, or afterwards patented or allowed by commissioners of boundaries, by 
metes and bounds, but in most cases,, where the award of patent referred to fisheries 
at all, it conferred merely a right of fishery as an appurtenance to the land without 
specifying the extent of the fishery, and left it to be determined either by the gen- 
eral provisions of the statute or the testimony of witnesses. In the majority of 
cases, however, no reference was made to fisheries, and the right rested solely on 
the statute. In 1848 the great division of lands was made by which the King gave 
to the Government a large number of royal lands, and upon the downfall of the 
monarchy the crown lands also became Government lands. 

In shoal waters along the shores there are many fish ponds, made artificially 
by the construction of stone walls of semicircular form with the shore line as a 
diameter, and with small openings through the wall for the flow of the tide. These 
are found on Government lands as well as private lands. 

Xow, bearing in mind the foregoing facts, the sea fisheries of these islands, 
except as expressly awarded or patented, are governed as follows by statute: 

All fishing grounds appertaining to government lands or otherwise belonging 
to the government, excepting fish ponds, are free for all persons. The minister of 
the interior may, however, for the protection of the fishing grounds, forbid the 
taking of fish at certain seasons. There has thus far been no occasion for the 
exercise of this power by the minister. The fish ponds owned by the government 
arc leased to private persons. Their future disposition is an appropriate subject for 
consideration by the committee on public lands. Upon the sale of any government 
land the fisheries appertaining thereto remain free. Ko person residing without 
the islancfs may take fish within the waters of the islands for the purpose of sale 
without the islands. The fishing grounds from the shore to the reef, and where 



250 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

there is no reef for a distance of one mile, belong to the konohikis, for the use of 
themselves and their tenants. Each konohiki may set apart one variety of fish for 
himself, or, on consultation with his tenants, may prohibit all fishing during certain 
seasons, and during the fishing .season receive from his tenants one-third of all fish 
taken. The tenants may take fish either for themselves or for sale or exportation. 
No person .shall use giant powder or other explosive substance in taking fish. No 
person shall take the young of tlie nnillot and awa under four inches in length, 
except for the purpose of stocking ponds. 

It will thus be seen that fisheries are governed here by princi])lcs recognized 
by the common law. There are common fisheries, commons of fishery, and several 
fisheries; but owing to the peculiar conditions that have existed here the two latter 
classes of fisheries exist here to a much la-fger extent than in other English-speaking 
countries. Eights of fishery here are, as at common law, subject to rights of navi- 
gation. They are subject also to statutory regulation. 

Until recently the fishing industry has been engaged in chiefiy by Hawaiians, 
but of late the Chinese and Japanese have entered largely into it. They fish both 
on the free fishing grounds and on private grounds, including fish ponds, which 
they lease from the owners. No fishing on a large scale has yet been undertaken, 
but a fishing company of whites has recently been formed, which is to work with a 
sailing vessel aboiit 70 feet in length, with auxiliary steam power. Fishing in 
shallow water near shore is conducted mostly with nets; that in deep water with 
hook and line. There are shoals or banks offshore, especially in the channels be- 
tween Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Lanai, which are said to be good 
fishing grounds. 

Fish are not found in such quantities in Hawaiian waters as in some other 
waters, and yet the number of species is perhaps unusually large, amounting to 
several hundred, of which about 100 may be found in the markets. These are of 
great variety of size, shape, and color, and include many species of excellent food 
qualities. The sales at the Honolulu fish market amount to from 40,000 to 80,000 
fish of varying sizes per week. These are all inspected by an officer of the board of 
health. 

Hawaiian waters afford rare opportunities for the study of fish and other 
marine life. "While some scientific investigation has been made in this direction, 
it has been very limited, owing to lack of facilities. The establishment here of a 
station under the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries would no 
doubt prove to be of great benefit to both the people of these islands and those 
of the mainland. In this connection it may not be out of place to add that there 



THE TERRITORY OF HAAVAII. 251 

is some prospect for the establishment hero of a marine aquarium and biological 
laboratory l)y the trustees of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, and that the 
Hawaiian legislature at its last session authorized the minister of the interior to 
reserve a portion of the reef on the southeasterly side of the channel of Honolulu 
harbor for a marine pari, and to enter into an agreement with the said trustees 
for the establishment of such aquarium and laboratory within said park. 

Very respectfully, 

W. F. FREAR, 
JNO. T. MORGAN. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC LANDS. 

The Committee on Public Lands, to whom was referred the subject for investi- 
gation, beg leave to report as follows: 

Prior to the year 1840, all tlie lands of the Hawaiian Islands belonged, in 
legal contemplation, to the King, and the chiefs and people, as tenants, by a system 
closely resembliiig the feudal system of England, held their respective parcels by 
payment of rent or rendering of service. In that year King Kamehameha III. 
granted to his chiefs and people certain portions of the land, to Government pur- 
poses certain other portions, and reserved to himself the remainder. By an act 
passed June 7, 1848, the Legislature accepted his grant, and confirmed to the King, 
his heirs and successors, certain described lands which were thenceforth known as 
crown lands. In the act organizing the executive departments, provision was made 
for the appointment of a land commission to receive and pass upon the claims of 
occupants of lands to their respective holdings in the portion of lands set apart for 
the chiefs and people. This commission heard the testimony of claimants, caused 
sTirveys to be made, and issued to the occupants entitled thereto certificates called 
"land commission awards." These aM-ards established the right of the grantee to 
the possession of the land and entitled him, upon payment of one-fourth of the 
value of the bare land, to receive a royal patent for his holding. Those awards, 
and the patents issued pursuant thereto, are the source of title to all the lands not 
public lands, or reserved as crown lands. 

The lands thus confirmed to the chiefs and known according to their c.\tent 
as ahupuaas or ilis, amounted to 1,571,341 acres, and the lands confirmed to the 
common people, and known as kuleanas, aggregated 28,658 acres. (Hawaiian An- 
nual, 1898, p. 34.) 

The crown lands reserved to the King under the act of 1848 were in 1865 
(act January 3, 18fi5) placed in the liands of a body known as the commission of 



252 THE TEKKITORY OF HAWAII. 

crown lands. This body was empowered to lease the crown lands for periods not 
exceeding thirty years, but not to alienate the same. The net rentals belonged to 
the monarch as a personal perquisite. 

The Government lands were authorized to be sold l)y the minister of the 
interior, with the consent of the executive council (Civil Laws, sec. 169-171). 

By an act passed July 9, 1850, one-twentieth of all public lands was set apart 
for the support of schools. Provision was made for the selection by, and patenting 
to, the board of education of the lauds thus set apart, and the board of education 
was empowered to sell and lease lands thus received (Civil Laws, sec. 157). Part 
of the lands thus set apart are used as sites for school buildings, part is leased, 
and part has been sold. (See Table Xo. I.) 

In 1884 an act was passed for the setting aside of homesteads to landless appli- 
cants on liberal terms, but it seems to have been very little used, only 557 holdings 
having Ipeen taken up under it, of which 256 have been patented. Lender this 
method a party was prohibited from acquiring more than 2 acres of taro or wet 
land and more than 20 acres of dry land. The fee for such settlement was $10. 

In 1891, Queen Liliuokalani divided a part of her crown land holdings in 
Hawaii into small tracts and provided for the leasing of them to homestead occu- 
pants upon easy terms. 

The foregoing roughly outlines the enactments regarding the disposition of 
the lands up to the year 1895, when the legislature met under the Republic. The 
legislature of that year passed what it designated as the "land act, 1895," which 
]irovided a comprehensive system for the care and disposition of the public 
domain. 

By this act the "crown lands" are treated as having vested in the Republic 
upon the abolition of the monarchy, and are now embraced as public lands. The 
l)ublic lands are placed under the control of a board of three commissioners, one 
of whom is the minister of the interior. The other two are appointed by the 
President, with the approval of the cabinet, and one of them is designated as agent 
of public lands. The act divides the islands into six land districts and provides 
for each district a subagent of public lands and ranges. 

REPORT OK (():*1MITTEE OX THE JUDICIAEY. 

The Committee on Judiciary submit the following report upon the "elective 
franchise:" 

The question of the elective franchise and of representation in the legislative 



•THE TERKITORY OF HAWAII. 253 

body is a delicate and most important question, as upon this depends the general 
character of the local government. 

Two classes of qualifications have been relied on chiefly in the past to pre- 
serve a fair standard of membership in the legislature. These are the educational 
and the property qualifications. The educational qualification merely requires 
members and voters for members of each branch of the legislature to be able to 
read, write, and speak the English or Hawaiian language. This qualification ha,s 
long been required in Hawaii and no objection has been offered to it from any 
quarter. Practically all the native Hawaiians possess this qualification. 

The property qualifications are more restrictive, and this subcommittee, while 
believing that the time will come when these can be removed entirely, are of the 
opinion that for the present they should he retained to some extent. The prop- 
erty qualifications should not, however, be increased. They might perhaps with 
safety be reduced. Conditions in this respect in Hawaii differ from those in the 
Ur.ited States. The people of Hawaii have always been accustomed to restrictions 
in Ihe matter of representation, especially in the upper branch of the Legislature. 
A review of the past will show this clearly, and will show also that the recom- 
mendations of the commission are decidedly in the direction of extension rather 
than of restriction of the privilege of representation. 

Under the present constitution of Hawaii members of the lower branch of the 
legislative body are required to own property valued at not less than $1,000, or to 
have an annual income of not less than $600. It is recommended that these figures 
be now reduced to $.500 and $250, respectively. 

Under the present constitution members of the upper house are required to 
own property valued at $3,000, or to have an annual income of $1,200. It is now 
recommended that these figures be reduced to $3,000 and $1,000, respectively. 

These restrictions upon membership in the two houses are good as far as they 
go, and yet they are not as eft'ective as might at first appear, for there are always 
some men of every class who possess these qualifications. The only effective way 
to obtain a fairly conservative Legislature under conditions such as exist at present 
in Hawaii, is to require proper qualifications of the voters themselves. 

For many years, under the monarchy, voters for members of the lower house 
were required to own property to the extent of $1.50, or a leasehold on which the 
annual rent was at least $25, or to have an annual income of $75. These restric- 
tions were finally removed under the monarchy. There has been no property 
qualification whatever for voters for members of the lower house under the Ke- 
public, and it is recommended that there shall be none in the future. 



2-A TblE TKRKITUKY OF HAWAII. 

As to the upper liouse, the people were for many years not permitted to vote 
at all for its members. At first its members were appointed by the King, and 
membership was hereditary. Afterwards they were appointed for life. It was not 
until 1887, under the Monarchy, that they were elected by the peojile, and tlicu 
the voters were required to own j)roperty, real or personal, valued at $3,000, or to 
have an annual income of $600. Under the Eepuhlic the amount of real proiiurty 
required was reduced to $1,500, the amount of personal property remain- 
ing at $3,000 and the annual income at $000. It is now proposed to re- 
move the personal property qualification altogether, to reduce the real property 
qualification to $1,000, and to allow the income qualification to remain at $fiUO. 
This seems to be as great a reduction as can safely be made at the present time. 
This is evident from the history of the past, especially during the last years of the 
Monarchy, when the property qualifications were greater tlian it is now proposed to 
make them. 

The qualifications proposed are more liberal than have ever existed before in 
Hawaii, and under them a large portion of the native Hawaiians can vote for mem- 
bers of the upper house and practically all of them for members of the lower house. 
The suffrage has been extended in the past in Hawaii by degrees. It is believed 
to be wisest to continue this process of growth. To remove the property qualifica- 
tions gradually is probably the quickest way to obtain their entire removal ulti- 
mately. To sweep them all away at the present time might prove so disastrous 
as to produce a reaction, by which the franchise might be restricted much more 
than it is at present, if not taken away altogether. The two houses sit separately, 
and by requiring a property qualification for voters for the upper hoiise and no 
such qualification for voters for the lower house, all classes are fairly represented 
and each class may act as a check upon the other, since no bill can be passed without 
the concurrence of both houses. To materially reduce the qualifications below 
what it is now proposed to make them would be to practically turn the Legislature 
over to the masses, a large portion of whom have not yet fully learned the moaning 
of representative government, and to practically deprive the more conservative 
elements and jiropcrty owners of effective representation. 

Heretofore the two houses have been equal in membership, each containing 
fifteen members. It is now proposed to double the membership of the lower house. 
This will increase the representation of the masses and at the same time give the 
lower house greater protection from outside influences. 

JNO. T. MORGAISr. 
W. F. FREAR. 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 255 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE POSTAL SERVICE. 

The Hawaiian postal system is, in its general character, based \ipon and 
modeled after the methods long established in the United States. The special de- 
tails of operation, required by special conditions upon the islands, can be readily 
provided for by inconsiderable modifications of the existing regulations of the 
United States Post-Office Department in their application there. 

The 111 officers and employees in the Hawaiian postal service are now ap- 
pointed by the Postmaster-General. By the laws and regulations of the United 
States they would be classified and appointed, a part by the President and a part by 
the Postmaster-General. 

The receipts of the Hawaiian postal bureau for 1897 were $73,539.99 and the 
disbursements $66,659.37, showing a net profit of $6,870.62. 

The following statement will show this in more detail. 

HAWAIIAN POSTAL BUREAU FOR YEAR 1897. 
REVENUE AND RECEIPTS. 

Due from island offices January 1 144.00 

Stamp sales 56,799.20 

Box rents 4,749.79 

Island box rents 950.25 

General postage 879.17 

Tax letters 818.24 

Money-order fees 9,496.36 

73,737.01 

Less stamp exchange 207.02 

?73,529.99 

DISBURSEMENTS. 

Postmaster-general and clerks J21,492.50 

Pay of postmaster 17,284.00 

Pay of mail carriage 16,382.50 

Incidentals 9,766.51 

Special mail carriage 1,733.86 

$66,659.37 

Net gain '. $6,870.62 

With the adoption and application of the United States postal laws there may 
not be so favorable a financial showing in future, as the rates on printed matter, 
far below cost to the Government, provided by our laws will at once reduce the 



2.5G THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

Hawaiian postal revenues, and tliere would lie a Tailing off for oeean postage to the 
I'nited States. 

The interisland mails are now carried free of charge hy the lines of interisland 
steamers in com]i!ianee with a provision in their licenses requiring the performance 
of this work. 

Statements are hereto appended of the post-offices, postmasters and other 

enijiloyees, the salaries jiaid, bonds required, sales of stamps, and bo.\ rents; also a 

eonniiunication from Hon. S. M. Damon, minister of finance, pointing out the 

advantages of the continuance of the present ])arcels-post system, by which the 

Hawaiian rates now are to the I'nited States, per pound, 12 cents; to Canada, 20 

cents; to the United Kingdom and Australia, 25 cents. 

R. R. IIITT. 

W. F. FREAR. 
REPORT OF COMMITTEE OX CORPORATIONS. 

The body of Hawaiian law in relation to the creation and control of corpora- 
tions, domestic and foreign, and of joint-stock companies, while based upon the 
principles and methods followed in the States, is very liberal, and contains pro- 
visions which have grown out of the conditions surrounding enterprises under- 
taken in these islands. In regard to the personal liberty of stockholders in corpora- 
tions and joint-stock companies, there is a narrow limit of liability. "No stock- 
holder shall be liable for the debts of the corporation beyond the amount of what 
may he due on the stock or shares held or owned by him." (Sees. 2019 and 2035, 
Civil Code.) In regard to bank corporations the law makes every stockholder indi- 
vidually and personally liable for such portions of the bank's debts and liabilities 
as the amount of stock or shares owned by him bears to the whole of the subscribed 
capital stock or shares of the corporation, and for a like proportion only of each 
debt or claim against the corporation (sec. 2057). "No charter shall be granted 
any company whose capital stock is less than $200,000." (Sec. 2052.) 

There has been a rapid growth of corporations in almost every form of 
industry upon the islands, in one feature far out of proportion to what is seen in 
the States, viz., corporate companies carrying on farming, which, in our country, 
is generally carried on by individuals. Sugar plantations on these islands are 
nearly all owned liy corporations. The sugar industry is by far the largest single 
interest in value and in profit. 

The fact that the sugar ])lantations are almost wholly conducted by companies 
is partly owing to the fact that large capital is required at the very beginning, and 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 257 

the laws make possible the union of small investments without great liability. 
There has been an element of special risk, too, in the industry. Investors always 
bore in mind that the prosperity of the whole industry depended upon the reci- 
procity treaty with the United States, the benefits of which have actually been 
changed by legislation in the United States, and reciprocity might have been 
repealed altogether with a change of policy or of party control in the United 
States. Men did not like to risk all they had in one venture, but would take 
shares in companies. With the removal of this element of uncertainty, now that 
comi)arativc stability of government is assured by. annexation, that element of 
uncertainty will disappear, and with it the tendency to put every enterprise into 
the form of a corporation will diminish. But the large capital necessary to procure 
the land, buy the machinery of irrigation and the sugar mills, and meet the large 
expenses of cultivating imidements, and the long pay roll of the laborers, all of 
which must be advanced long before any return begins, will probably continue, 
though in a less degree than heretofore, to induce people to prefer to invest in 
sugar-planting companies, rather than to attempt a plantation single-handed. This 
will doubtless be the course even of the few persons who may have the capital 
to make the attempt. 

Lists and descriptions of the corporations — mercantile, agricultural, and man- 
ufacturing, domestic and foreign — now existing and operating in the Hawaiian 
Islands, and of church, charitable, and literary associations, are hereto appended. 

R. R. HITT. 

W. F. FREAR. 

THE CO:\IiriTTEE ON HEALTH REPORTS OX LEPROSY. 

This subject occuiDies a place intermediate between quarantine and purely local 
health matters. There is little danger of its introduction from abroad, and yet 
it is a contagious disease which deeply concerns the islands as a whole and the 
United States as well. It is the largest subject with which the board of health 
deals. 

A system of segregation has been enforced since 1865. A tract of land two 
or three miles across, on the Island of Molokai, peculiarly adapted for the pur- 
pose by reason of its complete isolation, being inclosed on one side by a lofty 
precipice and on the other sides by the ocean, is set apart exclusively for the 
leper settlement. The following table shows the number of lepers at the settle- 
ment at the end of each year of its history, also the number of admissions and 
deaths or discharsfes for each vear: 



2.58 


THE TERRITORY OF 


HAWAII. 






Year. 


Admis- 
sions. 


Deaths. 


Discharged 
or unac- 
counted for. 


Number 
on the 
books 
Dec. 31. 


1866 


141 


26 


10 


105 


1867 


70 


25 


7 


143 


1868 


115 


28 


2 


228 


1869 


126 


59 


11 


284 


1870 


57 


58 


4 


279 


1871 


183 


51 


9 


402 


1872 


105 


64 


4 


439 


1873 


487 


156 


21 


749 


1874 


91 


161 


8 


671 


1875 


212 


163 


14 


706 


1876 


96 


122 


3 


677 


1877 


163 


129 


1 


710 


1878 


239 

125 


147 
209 




802 


1879 


1 


717 


1880 


51 


152 


10 


606 


1881 


232 

71 


132 
121 




706 


1882 


6 


649 


1883 


301 


150 


15 


785 


1884 


108 


168 


8 


717 


1885 


103 


142 


26 


655 


1886 


43 


100 


8 


590 


1887 


220 


108 


4 


698 


1888 


579 


212 


28 


1,035 


1889 


308 


149 


7 


1.187 


3S90 


202 


158 
212 
137 
151 


18 

2 

19 


1,213 


1891 


143 


1,142 


1892 . 


109 


1 095 


1893 


211 


1,155 


1894 


128 


155 


3 


1,124 


1895 


106 


128 


15 


1,087 


1896 


146 


116 


2 


1,115 


1897 . •. 


124 


139 
8!i: were as 




11 no 


Tlu> leper? at the 


settlement at the end of 1 


fiillows by nationality: 


Hawaiians 








9S4 


Half-castes 








62 


Chinese 








32 










5 


British . . . . . 








4 


G€*rniaiis . . 








4 










6 


Russians 








1 


Smith Spa Islanders 








2 












Total 


... 1,100 



There are at the settlement 07 nonleprous children and 98 nonleprous helpers, 

as follows: 

Native volunteer helpers 78 

Catholic priests 2 

Protestant pastor and wife 2 

Physician 1 

Franciscan sisters 5 

Japanese servants to sisters 2 

Catholic brothers 6 

Japanese servants to superintendent 2 

Total 98 



THE TEKKITORY OF HAWAII. 259 

It will be noticed that the number of lejjers at the settlement during the last 
ten years has been larger than previously, and that during that period the number 
has remained fairly constant. This does not indicate that leprosy is on the in- 
crease, or even that it is holding its own. The testimony of the government 
jjliysicians and agents of the board is that it is diminishing. The greater number 
at the settlement during the last ten years is due to stricter enforcement of segre- 
gation, this being the period since the revolution of 1887, when the reform 
government came into power. Moreover, owing to this stricter enforcement, 
the lepers are gathered in for the most part now at an earlier stage of the disease 
than was formerly the case, and, consequently, the death rate at the settle- 
ment is lower now than formerly. Undoubtedly as time goes on the number of lepers 
and the expense of this branch of the service will diminish until it becomes nil. 

The lepers live principally in two villages, called Kalaupapa and Kalawao, 
tiituated, respectively, on ojiposite sides of the tongue of land reserved for the settle- 
ment. There are 711) buildings at the settlement, the majority of which are owned 
by the government. These include a court-house, jail, schoolhouses, offices, ware- 
houses, workshops, slaughter-houses, dispensaries, medical bathhouses, hospitals, 
dormitories, many cottages, etc. At Kalawao there is a home for boys, the gift 
of private persons, conducted under the board of Roman Catholic brothers, and 
at Kalaupapa a similar home for girls, in charge of Roman Catholic sisters. There 
is a Young Men's Christian Association, Protestant churches, Roman Catholic, 
and Mormon churches. A store is maintained by the board for the benefit of the 
lepers. There is a system of waterworks. A district magistrate goes to the 
settlement at times from the other side of the island to hold court. There is a 
band at Kalawao and Kalaupapa each, the members of which are lepers, and the 
■uniforms and instruments for which are the gifts of private jjcrsons. The settle- 
ment is a little world in itself. 

The lepers may erect buildings and cultivate land for their own benefit. 
Lepers living outside the homes receive weekly rations of food, monthly rations 
of some other things, such as soap, matches, and oil, and semi-annual "clothes- 
ration orders" of the value of $5. They are exempt from personal taxes, and 
taxes on their personal property at the settlement. They enjoy a franking privi- 
lege as to interisland letters. They may be required to perform a reasonable 
labor. 

Great care is taken to prevent the spread of the disease, although it is not so 
contagious as popularly supposed. Visitors are not allowed at the settlement 
except by express permission, nor are persons residing there allowed to leave 



2(;0 TIIK TERRITOKY OF HAWAII. 

the settlement without similar permission. Passenger vessels of over 250 tons are 
forbidden to carry lepers except as directed hy the board. Financial transactions 
\vith the outside are conducted by means of postal orders, money seldom leaving 
the settlement, and then only after it is purified. Great care is also taken to 
preserve cleanliness at the settlement. 

At Kalihi, near Honolulu, there is a home for nonleprous girls of leprous 
parents in charge of Franciscan sisters. At the same place there is a receiving 
station for the reception and examination of leper suspects sent from the various 
districts; also a hospital for special study and treatment of leprosy, with a bac- 
teriological laboratory, in charge of a specialist. 

The lejier settlement is conducted economically as well as with great efficiency. 
The cost of conducting the settlement and the establishment at Kalihi together 
amounts to only about $100 per leper per annum. 

How far internal health matters as distinguished from quarantine should 
lie controlled by the Federal Government would depend largely upon the nature 
of those matters and the manner in which the control is exercised. It would 
seem that the power of Federal control should exist over contagious and infectious 
diseases as distinguished from other internal health matters. These are diseases 
the control of which is of vital interest to the whole people. It does not follow, 
however, that this power should always be exercised directly by the Federal Gov- 
ernment or exclusively through Federal officers; but in cases of conflict between 
Federal and local power, when exercised in this respect, the former should be 
])redominant, the latter subordinate or auxiliary. The main object is to secure 
protection, both to the people at large and to the localities more directly con- 
cerned, and at the same time to work as little hardship and cause as little offense 
as possible. Leprosy is the only domestic contagious disease in Hawaii that 
need be specially considered. The native Hawaiians are the people to whom 
this disease is almost exclusively confined. They have little or no fear of this 
disease and are peculiarly devoted to their friends and relatives. It therefore 
requires a great deal of tact and good judgment to enforce segregation without 
giving undue offense or working undue hardship. In the past, attempts to enforce 
segregation have more than once led to bloodshed. But at the present time it 
is believed that such experience has been had by the officers and agents of the 
Hawaiian board of health that strict segregation may be enforced with compara- 
tively little friction. Officers who have not had such experience and who do not 
understand Hawaiian ways and character would encounter great difficulties and 
cause great discontent. The Federal Government could not do better, either 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. •<! .1 

in point of economy or in point of effectiveness, at least so long as present condi- 
tions eontinne, than to permit this disease to be controlled through the local 
offic.ers and the existing machinery. But it would seem to be only just that the 
Federal Government should share in the expense. 

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AGRICULTURE. 

Hon. Shelby M. Cullom, 

Chairman of the Hawaiian Commission: 

I have the honor to submit the following report on agriculture: 

Lands under the cniitrol of the Hawaiian Government previous to annexation 
are divided into two general classes, one of which includes town lots, sites of 
public buildings, land devoted to public uses, such as roads, landings, nurseries, 
forest reservations, reservations for conservation of water supply, and public parks 
— generally designated as Government lands, which remain under the manage- 
ment of the minister of the interior; all other lands are placed under the control 
of the commissioners of public lands, under the designation of public lands. 

These are classified as agricultural, pastoral, pastoral agricultural, forest, and 
waste land. 

Agricultural land is divided into three classes: 

First class. Land suitable for the cultivation of fruit, coffee, sugar, or other 
similar crops, with or without irrigation. 

Second class. Land suitable for the cultivation of annual crops only. 

Third class. Wet land. 

Pastoral land is divided into two classes: 

First class. Land not within the description of agricultural land, but capable 
of carrj'ing live stock the year through. 

Second class. Land capable of carrying live stock only a part of the year, 
and otherwise inferior to the first class. 

These divisions of the public lands arc necessarily somewhat arbitrary and 
only approximate definiteness in description. For instance, some first-class pastoral 
land is fair second-class agricultural land, and much of the pastoral land of both 
the first and second classes becomes first-class agricultural land upon the applica- 
tion of irrigation. 

Wet land is used as such for the cultivation of only taro and rice, but it is 
sometimes dried off or drained and used for the cultivation of sugar. 

First-class agricultural land may be loosely divided into sugar land and 



?fi2 THE TKEIUTOKY OF HAWAII. 

fruit and coffee land, the former generally lying at low elevations and the latter 
beginning where the former leaves off and reaching near to the frost line, though 
all sugar lands are more or less suitable for the cultivation of some kinds of 
fruit. 

The staple agricultural products, leaving out for the present the subject of 
live stock, are taro, sugar, rice, coffee, and bananas. 

Taro is the staff of life to the al)original llawaiians, and is entirely consumed 
at home, except a small amount of taro flour, which is exported. It is generally 
raised in wet laud, but it grows well and it cultivated to a considerable extent 
in dry land. The crop is a profitable one, l)ut has suffered in recent years from 
the attacks of various insect pests. 

There are no statistics from which information can be obtained as to the 
aggregate annual yield and average profits of this crop. 

Sugar was first grown in the Hawaiian Islands on lands enjoying a sufficient 
rainfall the year through for its successful cultivation, and it is still extensively 
jjroduced on such lands. Irrigation by gravity from running streams was intro- 
duced at an early period, and the results were so beneficial that its development 
was rapid, and extensive arid areas in different parts of the islands were thus 
reclaimed. Irrigation by water artificially raised was a later enterprise, and has 
become especially successful in recent years through radical improvements in 
pumping machinery. Fertilizers are almost universally used by sugar growers 
with satisfactory results. Steam plows are generally used where the character of 
the land permits, with marked improvement in the productive quality of the soil. 

It is probable that sugar production depending upon a water supply from 
rainfall or from streams by gravity flow has nearly reached its limit, and that all 
future increase in the sugar production of the Hawaiian Islands will be through 
aid of pumping machinery. 

As substantially all of the sugar produced in these islands is exported, the 
custom-house statistics fairly give the extent of the production. This for 1S97 
was 520,158,232 pounds, worth $15,390,422.13. 

Eice is always grown in wet land and is almost entirely cultivated by the 
Chinese, many of whom have improved machinery moved by water power for 
preparing the crop for the market. Two crops are raised each year from the 
same land. Fertilizers are much used. The product is of the best quality. While 
there is a large consumption of rice at home, the export for 1897 amounted to 
5,49!),4!>9 jiounds, worth $225,575.52. 

The cultivatinn of coffee is a comparatively new enterprise, only a few of the 



THE TEREITORY OF HAWAII. 2C,» 

plantations being as yet in full bearing. Coffee was tried on a considerable scale 
in the fifties, but was a faihire through insect pests. At that time it was generally 
cultivated on low lauds; now it is agreed that in this country coffee should be 
cultivated at elevations between 300 or 400 and 2,500 feet above the sea. The 
best soil for it is loose alluvium over a subsoil of aa (broken volcanic rock). The 
elevation required for its cultivation places it well within the forest belt, a cir- 
cumstance which often calls for a considerable outlay for clearing. Irrigation 
is seldom used in coffee culture. Four or five years from transplanting are required 
by a coffee tree for reaching a full bearing capacity. 

Coffee raising can be favorably carried on upon a small scale, although in 
the pulping and cleaning processes co-operation among neighboring planters is 
desirable. 

On account of the increasing demand for coffee lands, and the fact that this 
enterprise can be profitably carried on in small holdings, the Government has de- 
voted its energies, under the settlement provisions of its land legislation, mainly 
to the opening of cotfee lands to settlement in small farms within 100 acres in 
extent, except in the Olaa coffee region, where pioneer holders of original crown 
leases were allowed to acquire, upon the basis of such leases, a larger area. These 
lands have been eagerly taken up by actual settlers, and are generally prosperous. 
In the last biennial period 422 holdings, not including the Olaa lots, were taken 
up, including an aggregate area of 20,234 acres and worth, at the moderate 
Government appraisement, $118,853, unimproved value. The agreements under 
which these lots were taken require performance of conditions of residence and 
cultivation in some cases, and of cultivation and other improvement in others, and 
in no case confer immediate title in fee. 

The area of good coffee land as yet unoccupied is comparatively large. A 
large part, however, of the public lands of this class is held under leases to private 
])arties. The expiration of the terms of these leases will, from time to time, 
augment materially the area under the control of the Government suitable for 
settlement purposes. 

As land suitable for coffee culture corresponds generally with forest land, the 
policy of land settlement is confronted with the consideration of the subject of 
forestry. A wholesale substitution of coffee plantations for forest growth might 
seriously affect local climatic conditions to the extent of producing permanent 
injury to surrounding agricultural interests. This subject should be fully investi- 
gated before any settlement enterprises involving extensive forest destruction are 
decided on. 



2CA THE TEKKITOHY OF HAWAII. 

TliLTL' is a considerable locai consumption of Hawaiian coffee. The export 
for 1897 amoimted to 337,158 pounds, estimated to be worth $99,G9G.G2. 

The banana is a hardy plant without insect enemies and is cultivated largely 
with irrigation. It requires a fertile soil and thorough cultivation, and can be 
raised from the seashore nearly uj) to the frost line. The yield is large and the 
crop, as raised for export, a profitable one. In 1897 there were exported 75,835 
bunches, valued at .$75,-H2.50. There is also a considerable home consumption of 
this fruit. 

Inder free trade with the main land the cultivation of pineapples, avocado 
]iears, and tobacco, and the manufacture ot taro Hour and jams and jellies and the 
canning of fruit will undoubtedly become profitable. Other fruits and some vege- 
tables will be i)rofitably raised for the Pacific coast markets. 

Indian corn, Irish and sweet ])otatoes, and garden vegetables are successfully 
and ])rofitably raised for the home denumd. 

The raising of live stock has, as a rule, been carried on in a haphazard 
way, relying upon the natural growth of native grasses for pasturage, without 
other feeding. While considerable attention has been paid to the improvement 
of all kinds of stock 1)y the introduction of goi)d Idood, the condition and quality 
of live stock at the islands on the whole is not very creditable to the country; yet 
the business is generally profitable. 

With increased communication with other countries, numerous insect pests 
have been introduced, some of which have very seriously threatened certain crops. 
To meet this invasion, the Government, acting jointly with the Sugar Planters' 
Association, has for several years kept an able entomologist in its employ, whose 
efforts have been directed to the introduction of enemies of the insect pests and 
have been attended with marked success. 

Under a new form of government it will be important to the country that it 
should have full authority to protect itself against the chance importation of 
injurious insects, even from the rest of the United States. 

SANFORD B. DOLE. 

Honolulu, Atigust 30, 1898. 

THE BIPOETATIOX OF LAr.OR. 

In 1865, December 18, Captain -Tames Makee, of the Inland of Mauai, master 
of the Hawaiian schooner Pfeil, brought "20 mon, 3 women, and 2 children from 
the Caroline Islands under contracts to labor on his jilantation. 



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THE TERKITOKY OF HAWAII. 267 

111 Jiiiie, 1863, about 15 Marquesaiis were brought to the islands, partly 
under the auspices of the Bureau of Immigration and partly under the Board of 
Foreign Missions. These, with the Caroline Island immigrants, gave good satisfac- 
tion, and their labor contracts were approved by the Bureau. In 1865 the ques- 
tion of the importation of Chinese "coolies" was further considered, and under 
certain regulations the introduction of this class of labor from China became a 
part of the policy of the Hawaiian Islands. From this time on cargoes of Chinese 
laborers under contracts for service were frequently and regularly made. The 
matter of the medical inspection of immigrants became important as a means 
of protecting the health of the inhabitants against contagious or infectious dis- 
eases, and the various steps taken in this direction have finally resulted in quaran- 
tine and health protective measures, which at this time are quite efficient. 

Various changes in the regulations and statutes controlling the immigration 
and introduction of foreign laborers were made from time to time by legislative 
and royal authority. A few inhabitants of the South Sea Islands were brought 
to Hawaii, and many Portuguese from other island colonies became residents and 
laborers in the kingdom. Special efforts were from time to time made to induce 
the importation of females of the several islands and countries from which such 
importation was desirable. 

As time passed, in 18G7 and 18(58, the matter of providing for the introduc- 
tion of Japanese laborers became an important qiiestion. The Japanese Govern- 
ment interposed its offices, and has since looked after the interests of those of 
its subjects W'ho have become laborers in Hawaii. So it may be said that as a 
commercial or business proposition, the matter of the employment of cheap labor, 
imported from various islands and countries became the important subject of 
Hawaiian consideration. The large profits resulting from the cultivation and 
manufacture of sugar, where inexpensive Asiatic labor was to be obtained, pro- 
duced the legitimate result of aggregating capital in large amounts for the purchase 
Or leasing of sugar lands, where this class of laborers could be employed most 
profitably. The facilities which existed under the Hawaiian monarchy for obtain- 
ing grants,' concessions, and leases of government lands were availed of by specu- 
lative favorites and others, and large plantations by wealthy planters, instead of 
small holdings by industrious heads of families, became the rule upon the islands. 
The cost of irrigation in sugar-producing di.stricts is also an obstacle not easily to 
be overcome by the small landholder, who could seldom command the funds to 
erect the dams, sluices, flumes, and expensive works required to convey the water. 
So that many thousands of acres of the most fertile lands in the world have, by 



2ii8 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

tlie combined influences above referred to, and others quite as potent, become 
unattainable by ordinary citizens. The large holdings have become larger and 
the small ones have been driven out or absorbed. Thus the prime object of 
American citizenship, the making of homes and the complete development of the 
family as the unit of our social system, seems, in a degree, to have been lost sight 
of in the Hawaiian Islands. 

The great corporations with special facilities for control of the soil have 
been often promoted by corrupt royal favoritism or other unjust means, and 
the individual citizen has been, per force, driven from the occupation in which 
he might have become a useful member of the community. Theoretically, Hawaii 
is now endowed with the attributes of a republican government, but to become 
truly and practically a part of our republic the laws of the United States pro- 
hibiting the creation or continuance of long leases of valuable lands and directing 
tlic survey and subdivision of all of the public lands of the islands as a part of the 
heritage of the people should be put in force. These lands should be disposed 
of in such wise and beneficent manner as will make these mountains and valleys 
the home of a million good American citizens. In the legislation necessary 
to produce this most desirable future for these insular additions to our system, two 
imperative agencies must be thoroughly and exhaustively considered. It seems 
to be admitted that the government of the country should be held responsible, 
first of all, for a complete system of public roads. The individual landowner ought 
not to be charged with the expense of building, in this mountainous country, the 
roads necessary either for the public use or for giving access to his lands or to 
those of his neighbors. With good public roads the first great hindrance to the 
building up of homes, of neighborhoods, and communities and schools will dis- 
appear. Wherever in this fertile land we make places for homes, we shall have 
homes. 

THE OFFICE-HOLDERS ON THE ISLANDS AND THEIR SALARIES. 
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON LOCAL EXECUTIVE OFFICES. 

lion. Shelby M. Cullom, 

Chairman of the Hawaiian Commission: 
The committee on local executive offices respectfully submits the accom- 
]ianying report. 

S. i;. DOLE. 
W. F. FREAR, 
Committee on Local Executive Offices. 
Honolulu, September l".^, 1898. 



THE TEKKITUKY OF 11 A WAIL - 269 

The local officers authorized by law in the Republic of Hawaii were the 
following: 



Salary 
Officer. Appointed by — Confirmed by — Tenure of office. per 



annum. 



Executive council. 

President Legislature 6 years $12,000 

Cabinet: 

Minister of foreign affairs President Senate Indefinite 6,000 

Minister of the interior do do do 6,000 

Minister of finance do do do 6,000 

Attorney-general do do do 6,000 

Department of foreign affairs. 

Minister of foreign affairs 

Secretary Minister President Indefinite 2,400 

Clerk Secretary Minister do 1,200 

Do do do do 1,000 

Clerk, executive council President do « 1,500 

Department of the interior. 

Minister of the interior 

Chief clerk Minister President Indefinite 2,700 

First assistant clerk do do 2,400 

Second assistant clerk do do 1,800 

Third assistant clerk do do 1, 500 

Fourth assistant clerk and ... .do do 1,200 

copyist. 

Two messengers, each do do 600 

Clerk of land records and.... do do 900 

copying patents. 

Electoral registrar do do 600 

Veterinary surgeon do do 600 

Commission of public lands. 

Land agent Minister President Indefinite ..'.... 3,000 

Secretary and subagent fifth Land Agent Minister do 2,100 

land district. 

Clerk do do do 1,200 

Assistant clerk do do do 600 

Subagent first district do do do 1,500 

Clerk first district do do do 600 

Subagent second district do do do 600 

Subagent third district do do do 480 

Subagent fourth district do do do 600 

Subagent sixth district do do do 360 

Ranger first district do do do 600 

Ranger, second district do do do 360 

Ranger, third district do do do 360 

Ranger, fourth district do do do 360 

Ranger, fifth district do do do 360 

Ranger, sixth district do do do 360 



•270 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

Bureau of survey. 



Surveyor-general Minister President Indefinite |3.000 

Chief assistant Surveyor - gen- Minister do 2,700 

eral. 

First assistant do do do 2,400 

Second assistant do do do 2,101) 

Third assistant do do do 1 ,350 

Draftsman do do do 1.050 

Aid do do do 600 

Messenger do do do 480 

Registry of conveyances. 

Registrar Minister President Indefinite 2,700 

Deputy registrar and copyist Registrar Minister do 1.500 

Copyist do do do 900 

do do GO do 800 

do do do do 600 

do do do do 600 

do do do do 480 

Bureau of immigration. 

Inspector Minister Indefinite 2,400 

Secretary do do 1,500 

Bureau of waterworks. 

Superintendent of HonoluluMinister President Indefinite 2,700 

waterworks and clerk of 

market. 

Clerk Superintendent Minister do 1,800 

Assistant clerk do do do 600 

Reservoir keepers (3) do * . . . .do do 1,320 

Plumber and assistant do do do 1,320 

Tap inspector do do do 1,042 

Shipping tenders do do do 603 

Market keeper do do do 360 

Assistant keeper do do do 300 

Superintendent Hilo water- . . . .do do do 900 

works. 

Superintendent Laupahoehoe .... do do do 20 

waterworks. 

Superintendent Koloa water- .... do do do 25 

works. 

Engineers (2) do do do 3,000 

Bureau of public works. 

Superintendent Minister President Indefinite 3.000 

Road engineer Superintendent Minister do 2,400 

Bookkeeper do do do 1,800 

Draftsman and assistant su-....do do do 1,500 

perintendent. 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 371 

Clerk Superintendent Minister Indefinite $900 

Harbor master do do do 3,000 

Road supervisor, Honolulu do do do 2,400 

Roads and bridges, Honolulu, .... do do do 13,332 

pay roll. 

Steam tug. pay roll do do do 6,600 

Electric-light inspector do do do 1,800 

Dynamoman do do do 960 

Do do do do 780 

Lineman do do do 780 

Station keeper do do do 720 

Trimmer do do do 720 

Do do do do 720 

Light-house keepers do do do 4,460 

Keeper of wharf and buoys do do do 120 

Lahaina. 

Gunpowder keeper, Hilo do do do 25 

Board of health. 

Secretary Minister Indefinite 2,000 

Government physicians Board of health do 18,000 

General expenses, pay roll do 9,430 

Nonleprous children, pay roll Indefinite 1,200 

Removing garbage, pay roll do 5,400 

Keeper quarantine station do 600 

Maintenance of hospitals, pay do 6,500 

roll. 

Act to mitigate pay roll do 1,575 

Segregation of lepers, pay roll do 19,200 

Superintendent insane asylum do 1,800 

Assistants, insane asylum do 11,832 

Food commissioner do 2,100 

Forests and nurseries bureau. 

Commissioner Minister President Indefinite 2,100 

Entomologist Commissioner . . Minister do 2,000 

Gardener, nursery do do do 1,020 

Forester do do do 1,020 

Laborers, Makiki and Nuuanu. . . .do do do 2,700 

Laborers, nurseries do do do 540 

Chief forester do do do 2,400 

Expert forester do do do 750 

Public grounds bureau. 

Pay roll, Government buildingMinister Indefinite 2,472 

Pay roll, Makiki and River.... do do 1.020 

parks. 

Pay roll, Thomas and Emma do do 1,020 

squares. 

Keeper mausoleum and do ! do 390 

grounds. 

Janitor and keeper, executive .... do do 1,200 

and judiciary building. 



272 THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 

Fire departments. 

Honolulu fire department, pay Indefinite $29,520 

roll. 

Steward, watchman, and engi- do 540 

neer, Hilo fire department. 

Department of finance. 

Minister of finance 

Registrar of public accountsMinister President Indefinite 2.700 

Clerk, finance office Registrar Minister do 1,800 

Second clerk and messenger do do do 600 

Tax bureau. 

Tax assessor, Oahu Minister President Indefinite 2,700 

Tax assessor, Hawaii do do ,. .do 2,500 

Tax assessor, Maui do do do 2,300 

Tax assessor, Kauai do do do 2,000 

Deputy tax assessors and col-Tax assessors Minister do 3,0)0 

lectors, salaries and com- 
missions. 

Postal bureau. 

Postmaster-general Minister President Indefinite 3.000 

Deputy postmaster-general Postmaster-gen-Minister do 2,000 

and secretary. ^ral. 

Superintendent postal sav-....do do do 2,008 

ings bank. . 

Superintendent money-order do do do 2,000 

division. 

General delivery clerk do do do 1,800 

Registry delivery clerk do do do 1,500 

Parcel-post clerk do do do 1,200 

Mail dispatcher do do do 1,200 

Postal savings bank clerk do do do ■ 1.200 

Money-order clerk do do do 1,200 

Do do do do 900 

General delivery clerk do do do 900 

Portuguese delivery clerk do do do 840 

Japanese delivery clerk do . ._. do do 840 

Chinese delivery clerk do do do 840 

Clerk do do do 600 

Do do do do 600 

Do do do do 60D 

Do do do do 60D 

Ladies' window clerk do do do 540 

Clerk do do do 540 

Do do do do 480 

Do do _ do do 240 

Assistant clerk, postal sav- ... .do do do 480 

ings bank. 

Clerk, postal savings bank do do do 360 

Janitor do do do 240 



THE TEKlilTOKY UF HAWAII. 



Bureau of customs. 

Collector-general Minister President Indefinite 

Deputy collector, Honolulu. .Collector-general Minister do . . . . 



Entry clerks (3) do 

Statistical clerks (3) do 

Port surveyor, Honolulu do ^. 

Storekeeper do 

Appraiser do 

Assistant appraiser do 

Customs gauger and tester do 

Examiners (2) do 

Appraiser's storekeeper do 

Chinese and Japanese invoice 

inspectors do 

Pilots, Honolulu (3), each do 

Assistants, customs ware- 
houses do 

Customs inspectors, Honolulu ... .do 

Customs guards, Honolulu do 

Pilot's watchman. Diamond 

Head do 

Pilot's watchman, pilot's of- 
fice do 

Pilots' boats, pay roll do 

Assistant guards, all ports do 

Collector, Kahului do 

Port surveyor, Kahului do 

Customs guards and inspec- 
tors, Maui do 

Collector, Hilo do 

Port surveyor, Hilo do 

Customs guards and inspec- 
tors, Hawaii do ' 

Collector, Mahukona and 

Honoipu do 

Collector, Waimea and Koloa. . . .do 

Collector. Kailua and Keala- 

kekua do 

Department of the At- 
torney-General. 

Attorney-general 

Deputy attorney-general Attorney - gen- Indefinite 

eral. 

Assistant to attorney-general ... .do do 

Clerk to department do do 

Marshal do President do . . . 

Clei k to marshal Marshal Attorney - gen- do ... 

eral. 

Deputy marshal do do do . . . 

Jailor, Oahu prison do do do . 



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$3 
2, 
3, 
4, 
2 
1, 



000 
700 
900 
200 
000 
201) 
100 
500 
,500 
,400 
,200 

,200 
,400 

,600 
,000 
.751) 

90.1 

720 
,500 
,000 
,500 
,000 

,160 
,500 
,000 



2.160 

900 
200 

200 



13,000 

1,800 
1.800 
3.000 
1,800 

2,100 
1,800 



274 



THE TKKRITORY OF HAWAII. 



Sheriff of Hawaii Marshal Attorney - 

eral. 



gen- 



. Indefinite. 



Sheriff of Maui do . 

Sheriff of Kauai do. 

Sheriff's clerk, Hawaii do . 

Sheriff's clerlj. Maui do . 

Sheriff's clerk, Kauai do. 

Deputy sheriff. Hawaii do , 

Deputy sheriff. North Kohala....do . 
Deputy sheriff. South Kohala . . . .do , 

Deputy sheriff. Hamakua do , 

Deputy sheriff. North Hilo do . 

Deputj sheriff, North Kona do , 

Deputy sheriff. South Kona do , 

Deputy sheriff, Kau do 

Deputy sheriff. Puna do , 

Police, Hawaii do , 

Deputy sheriff, Maui do , 

Deputy sheriff, Makawao do 

Deputy sheriff, Lahaina do , 

Deputy sheriff. Hana do , 

Deputy sheriff, Molokai do 

Police, Maui do . 

Deputy sheriff, Kauai do , 

Deputy sheriff, Kawaihau do , 

Deputy sheriff, Hanalei do , 

Deputy sheriff, Koloa do 

Deputy sheriff, Waimea do 

Police, Kauai do 

Deputy sheriff, Koolaupoko do 

Deputy sheriff, Koolauloa do 

Deputy sheriff, Waialua do 

Deputy sheriff, Waianae do 

Deputy sheriff, Ewa do . 

Police, Oahu do , 



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Clerks, receiving station (2) do do 



Supreme court officer do 

Hack inspector do 

Physicians' receiving station ... .do 

and prison. 
Jailors, guards, and lunas of .... do 

prisoners. 

Keeper kerosene warehouse do 

Keeper powdei magazine do 

Stenographer to department. Attorney - gen- 
eral. 
Audit department. 

Auditor-general President Senate do . 

Deputy auditor-general do Cabinet do . 

Clerks (eighteen months) .... Auditor-general do 



.do , 
.do , 
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.do 
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.00 

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$2,500 



67 
1 
1 
1 
1 



750 
000 
900 
900 

400 
800 
,200 
600 
,200 
720 
.200 
900 
,020 
720 
.500 
,500 
,200 
960 
960 
800 
.000 
,500 
780 
780 
780 
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600 
600 
600 
600 
90O 
,500 
.440 
080 
200 
200 



27,500 

900 

600 

1,500 



3,600 
2,400 
5,500 



THE TERRITORY OF HAWAII. 275 

Department of public instruc- 
tion. 

Inspector-general of schools. Minister and Indefinite |3,000 

commissioner 
of public in- 
struction. 

Deputy inspector and school do do 450 

agent, Honolulu. 

Traveling normal instructor do do 3,000 

Secretary of department do do 1,800 

Assistant secretary and school .... do do 1,500 

agent, Honolulu. 

Messenger and book clerk do do 900 

Public schools pay roll do do 225,000 

School agents do do 2,250 

Superintendent industrial do do 1,200 

school. 

Matron of industrial school do do 900 

Guards industrial school do do 90O 

In addition to the foregoing salaried officers are the following boards and 
commissions, the members of which serve without pay: 

Board of Immigration. — Comprising the minister of the interior, ex officio, 
chairman, and five commissioners appointed by the President, with the approval 
of the cabinet; term of office, indefinite. 

Board of Health. — Comprising the attorney-general, ex officio, and six mem- 
bers, three of whom are laymen- and three physicians, appointed by the President, 
with the approval of the cabinet; term of office, two years. 

Commissioners of Public Instnictioii. — Comprising the minister of foreign 
affairs, ex officio, minister of public instruction, and six commissioners, appointed 
by the President, with the approval of the cabinet; term of office, three years. 

Board of Prison Inspectors. — Comprising three inspectors, appointed by the 
minister of the interior, with the approval of the cabinet; term of office, two years. 

Board of Equalization. — Comprising the minister of finance and the several 
assessors. 

Board of Inspectors of Elections. — Comprising three inspectors of election 
for each precinct, api^ointed by the minister of the interior; term of office, in- 
definite. 

Board of Registration. — Comprising three members in five districts, appointed 
by the President, with the approval of the senate. 

Council of State. — Comprising fifteen members, five elected by senate, five 
elected by the house of representatives, and five appointed by President, with ap- 
proval of cabinet. Members of executive council sit and take part in meetings, but 
cannot vote. 



^ 



-i76 Tin: TEKKITORY OF HAWAII. 

Labor Commission.- — C'ompii.^ing three iiieiuberf;. ai)])ointi(l by the President; 
term of office, indefinite. 

Koad Board. — Comprising three members in each distriit, appointed liy the 
minister of the interior; term of office, indefinite. 

Pound Masters. — Consisting of one in eaeli distriet, ajipointed by tlie minister 
flf interior; term of otbce, indefinite; a system of fees cliarged. 

Commissioner of Public Lands. — Composed of a board of three commis- 
sioners, including the minister of the interior and two persons appointed by the 
President, with the approval of the cabinet, one of whom is designated agent of 
])ublie lands; term of office, indefinite. 



CHAPTER in. 

EAELY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

Captain James Cook's Great Discoveries and His Martyrdom — Cliaracter and Tra- 
ditions of the Hawaiian Islands — Cliarges Against the Famous Navigator, and 
effort to Array tlie Christian World Against Him — The True Story of His 
Life and Death — How Charges Against Cook Came to Be Made — Testimony 
of Vancouver, King and Dixon, and Last Words of Cook's Journal — Light 
Turned on History That Has Become Obscure — Savagery of the Natives — 
Their Written Language Took Up Their High Colored Traditions, and Pre- 
served Phantoms — Scenes in Aboriginal Theatricals — Problem of Govern- 
ment in an ArchiiJclago Where Race Questions Are Predominant — Now 
Americans Should Remember Captain Cook as an Illustrious Pioneer. 

Regarding the islands in the Pacific that we have for a long time largely occu- 
pied and recently wholly possessed, the Hawaiian cluster that are the stepping 
stone, the resting place and the coal station for the golden group more than a thou- 
sand leagues beyond, we should remember Captain Cook as one of our own Western 
pioneers, rejoice to read his true story, and in doing so to form a correct estimate 
of the people who have drifted into the area of our Protection, or territory that is 
inalienably our own, to be thoroughly Americanized, tliat they may some day be 
worthy to become our fellow-citizens. 

Sunday, January ISth, 17T8, Captain Cook, after seeing birds every day. and 
turtles, saw two islands, and the next day a third one, and canoes put off from the 
shore of the second island, the people speaking the language of Otaheite. As the 
Englishmen proceeded, other canoes appeared, bringing with them roasted pigs and 
very fine potatoes. The Captain says: "Several small pigs were purchased for 
a six-penny nail, so that we again found ourselves in a land of plenty. The natives 
were gentle and polite, asking whether they might sit down, whether they might 
spit on the deck, and the like. An order restricting the men going ashore was 
issued that I might do everything in my power to prevent the importation of a 
fatal disease into the island, which I knew some of our men now labored under." 
Female visitors were ordered to be excluded from the ships. Captain Cook's journal 
is very explicit, and he states the particulars of the failure of his precautions. Thi- 
is a subject that has been much discussed, and there is still animosity in the con- 
troversy. The discevery of the islands that he called the Sandwich, after his patron 
the Earl of Sandwich, happened in the midst of our Revolutionary war. After 

277 



278 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

Cook's explorations for the time, lie sailed in search of the supposed Northwest pass- 
age, and that enterprise appearing hopeless, returned to the summer islands, and 
met his fate in the following December. Captain George Vancouver, a friend and 
follower of Cook, says, in his "Voyage of Discovery and Around the World." from 
1790 to 1795: 

"It should seem that the reign of George the Third had been reserved by the 
Great Disposer of all things for the glorious task of establishing the grand key- 
stone to that expansive arch over which the arts and sciences should pass to the 
furthermost corners of the earth, for the instruction and happiness of the most lowly 
children of nature. Advantages so highly beneficial to the untutored parts of the 
human race, and so extremely important to that large proportion of the subjects of 
this empire who are brought up to the sea service deserve to be justly appreciated; 
and it becomes of very little importance to the bulk of our society, whose enlightened 
humanity teaches them to entertain a lively regard for the welfare gnd interest 
of those who engage in such adventurous undertakings for the advancement of 
science, or for the extension of commerce, what may be the animadversions or sar- 
casms of those few unenlightened minds that may peevishly demand, "what bene- 
ficial consequences, if any, have followed, or are likely to follow to the discoverers, 
or to the discovered, to the common interests of humanity, or to the increase of 
useful knowledge, from all our boasted attempts to explore the distant recesses of the 
globe?" The learned editor (Dr. Douglas, now Bishop of Salisbury) who has so 
justly anticipated this injudicious remark, has, in his very comprehensive introduc- 
tion to Captain Cook's last voyage, from whence the above quotation is extracted, 
given to the public not only a complete and satisfactory answer to that question, but 
has treated every other part of the subject of discovery so ably as to render any further 
observations on former voyages of this description wholly unnecessary, for the 
purpose of bringing the reader acquainted with what had been accomplished, pre- 
viously to my being honored with His Majesty's commands to follow up the labors 
of that illustrious navigator Captain James Cook; to whose steady, uniform, inde- 
fatigable and undiverted aftention to the several objects on wliicli the success of hi~ 
enterprises ultimately depended, tlu' world is indebted for such eminent and im- 
portant benefits." 

Captain George Vancouver pays, in the introduction of his reports, a remark- 
able tribute to Captain Cook, that should become familiar to the American people, 
for it is one of the features of prevalent Hawaiian literature that the great navigator 
is much disparaged, and denounced. One of the favorite theories of the missionaries 



EARLY IIISTUHY OF THE SAXDWRII ISLAXDS. 279 

has been that Cook's death at the hands of the savages was substantially the pun- 
ishment inflicted b\' God, because the Captain allowed himself to be celebrated and 
worshipped as a god by the lieathen, consenting to their idolatry when he should 
have preached to them, as was done with so much efficiency nearly half a century 
later. The fact is the natives had a great deal of "religion" of their own, and 
defended their superstitions with skill and persistence before yielding to the great 
simplicities of the Christian faith. Captain Cook, it must be admitted, did not 
attempt to preach the gospel. The gentleness of tlie natives turned out to con- 
tain a great deal that was most horrible. 

The closing years of the last century were those of rapid progress in the art of 
navigation, and Captain Vancouver gives this striking summary of testimony: 

"By the introduction of nautical astronomy iiito marine education, we are taught 
to sail on the hypothenuse, instead of traversing' two sides of a triangle, which was 
the usage in earlier times; by this means the circuitous course of all voyages from 
place to place is considerably shortened; and it is no«- become evident that sea 
officers of the most common rate abilities who will take the trouble of making 
themselves accjuainted with the principles of this science, will, on all suitable occa- 
sions, with proper and correct instruments, be enabled to acquire a knowledge of 
their situation in the Atlantic, Indian or Pacific Oceans, with a degree of accuracy 
sufficient to steer on a meridianal or diagonal line, to any known spot, provided it 
be sufficiently conspicuous to be visible at any distance from five to ten leagues. 

"This great improvement, by which the most remote parts of the terrestrial 
globe are brought so easily within our reach, would nevertheless have been of com- 
paratively little utility had not those happy means been discovered for preserving the 
lives and health of the officers and seamen engaged in such distant and perilous 
undertakings; which were so peacefully practiced by Captain Cook, the first great 
discoverer of this salutary system, in all his latter voyages around the globe. But 
in none have the effect of his wise regulations, regimen and discipline been more 
manifest than in the course of the expedition of which the following pages are 
designed to treat. To an unremitting attention, not only to food, cleanliness, ven- 
tilation, and an early administration of antiseptic provisions and medicines, but 
also to prevent as much as possible the chance of indisposition, by prohibiting indi- 
viduals from carelessly exposing themselves to the influence of climate, or unhealthy 
indulgences in times of relaxation, and by relieving them from fatigue and the 
inclemency of the weather-the moment the nature of their duty would permit them 
to retire, is to be ascribed the preservation of the health and lives of sea-faring peo- 
ple on long voyages." 



■>bi) LA1;LY IIISTUKY OF THE SAXDWILII ISLANDS. 

"Tho^e benefits did not long remain unnoticed by tbe eomniercial part of tbe 
British nation. Remote and distant voyages being now no longer objects of terror, 
enterprises were projected and carried into execution, for tbe purpo.'^e of establishing 
new and lucrative branches of commerce between Northwest America and China; 
and parts of the coast of the former that had not been minutely examined by Cap- 
tain Cook became now the general resort of tlie persons thus engaged." 

The special zeal and consistency with wliicli Cook is defended liy the English 
navigators who knew him and were competent to judge of the scope of his achieve- 
ments is due in part to the venom of his assailants. The historian of the Sandwich 
Islands, Sheldon Dibble, says: "An impression of wonder and dread having been 
made, Captain Cook and his men found little difiicuhy in having such intercourse 
with the people a- they chose. In regard to that intercourse, it was marked, as the 
world would say, with kindness and humanity. But it cannot be concealed that here 
and there at this time, in the form of loathsome disease, was dug the grave of the 
Hawaiian nation; and from so deep an odium it is to be regretted that faitliful his- 
tory cannot exempt even the fair name of ('ai)tain Cook liimsclf, since it was evident 
that he gave countenance to the evil. The native female first presented to him was 
a person of some rank: her name was Lelemahoalani. Sin and death were the 
first commodities imported to the Sandwich Islands."' 

We have already quoted Captain Cook's first words on this subject. He iiad inucli 
more to say giving in detail difliculties rather too searching to-be fully stated. As for 
the charge that Cook personally engaged in debauchery, it rests upon the tradition 
of savages, who had no more idea than wild animals of the restraint of human pas- 
sion. It was debated among the islanders whether the white men should be as- 
sailed by the warriors, and it was on the advice of a native queen that the women 
were sent to make friends with the strangers; and this was the policy pursued. As 
for the decline of the natives in numbers, and the "digging the grave of the na- 
tion," the horror of the islands was the destruction of female infants, and also the 
habit of putting aged and lielpless men and women to death. The general indict- 
ment against Captain Cook is that this amiable race was just about prepared for 
Christianity when he thrust himself forward as a god, and with his despotic licen- 
tiousness destroyed immediate possibilities of progress. In Sandwich Island notes 
by "a Ilaole" (that is to say, a white person) we see what may be said on the other 
side of the picture: "It becomes an interesting duty to examine their social, po- 
litical and religious condition. The first feature that calls the attention to the 
past is their social condition, and a darker picture can hardly be presented to the 
contemplation of man. They had their frequent boxing matches on a public arena. 



EAETA^ HISTORY OF THE SAXDWICII ISLANDS. 281 

and it was iiuthiiig uaeommon to see thirty or forty left dead on tlie field of con- 
test. 

"As gamblers they were inveterate. The game was indulged in by every per- 
son, from the king of each island to the meanest of his subjects. The wager ac- 
companied every scene of public amusement. They gambled away their property to 
the last vestige of all they possessed. They staked every article of food, their grow- 
ing crops, the cloflies they wore, their lauds, wives, daughters, and even the very 
bones of their arms and legs — to be made into fishhooks after they were dead. 
These steps led to the most absolute and crushing poverty. 

"They had their dances, which were of such a character as not to be conceived 
by a civilized mind, and were accompanied by scenes which would have disgraced 
even Nero's revels. Nearly every night, with the gathering darkness, crowds would 
retire to some favorite spot, where, amid every species of sensual indulgence they 
would revel until the morning twilight. At such times the chiefs would lay aside 
their authority, and mingle with tlie lowest courtesan in every degree of debauchery. 

"Thefts, robberies, murders, infanticide, licentiousness of the most debased and 
debasing character, burying their infirm and aged parents alive, desertion of the 
sick, revolting cruelties to the unfortunate maniac, cannibalism and drunkenness, 
form a list of some of the traits in social life among the Hawaiians in past days. 

"Their drunkenness was intense. They could prepare a drink, deadly intoxicat- 
ing in its nature, from a mountain plant called the awa (Piper methysticum). A 
bowl of this disgusting liquid was always prepared and served out just as a party of 
chiefs were sitting down to their meals. It would sometimes send the victim into 
a slumber from which he never awoke. The confirmed awa drinker could be imme- 
diately recognized by his lejjrous appearance. 

"By far the darkest feature in their social condition was seen in the family rela- 
tion. Society, however, is only a word of mere accommodation, designed to express 
domestic relations as they then existed. 'Society' was, indeed, such a sea of pollution 
as cannot be well described. Marriage was unknown, and all the sacred feelings 
which are suggested to our minds on mention of the various social relations, such, 
as husband and wife, parent and child, brother and sister, were to them, indeed, 
as though they had no existence. There was, indeed, in this respect, a dreary blank 
— a dark chasm from which the soul instinctively recoils. There were, perhaps, 
some customs which imposed some little restraint upon the intercourse of the sexes, 
but those customs were easily dispensed with, and had nothing of the force of estab- 
lished rules. It was common for a husband to have many wives, and for a wife also 
to have many husbands. The nearest ties of consanguinity were but little regarded. 



282 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

and among the chiefs, especially, the connection of brother with sister, and parent 
with child, were very common. For husbands to interchange wives, and for wives 
to interchange husbands, was a common act of friendship, and persons who would 
not do this were not considered on good terms of sociability. For a man or woman 
to refuse a solicitation was considered an act of meanness; and this sentiment was 
Ihorougbly wrought into their minds, that, they seemed not to rid themselves of 
the feeling of meanness in a refusal, to feel, notwithstanding their better knowledge, 
that to comply was generous, liberal, and social, and to refuse reproachful and nig- 
gardly. It would be impossible to enumerate or specify the crimes which emanated 
from this state of affairs. Their political condition was the very genius of despotism, 
s)'stematically and deliberately conducted. Fangs and chiefs were extremely jealous 
of their succession, and the more noble their blood, the more they were venerated 
by the common people." 

Mr. Sheldon Dibble is a historian whose work was published in 1843. He com- 
plains most bitterly that the natives bothered the missionaries by trying to give 
them the benefit of native thought. They wanted to do some of the talking, and 
said very childish things, and were so intent on their own thoughts that they would 
not listen to the preachers. But it ought not to have been held to be an offense for 
a procession of heathen to march.to a missionarj^'s house and tell him their thoughts. 
Tliat was an honest manifestation of profound interest — the slow ripening of a 
harvest field. Mr. Dibble's book is printed by the ilission Seminary, and Mr. Dib- 
ble says, page 21: "We know that all the inhabitants of the earth descended from. 
Noah," therefore, the Hawaiians "must once have known the great Jehova and 
the principles of true religion." But the liistorian says on the next page that the 
Hawaiians were heathen from time immemorial, for, "Go back to the very first re- 
puted progenitor of the Hawaiian race, and you find that the ingredients of their 
character are lust, anger, strife, malice, sensuality, revenge and the worship of idols." 
This is the elevation upon which Mr. Dibble places himself to fire upon the memory 
of the English navigator Captain James Cook. The first paragraph of the assault 
on Cook is this: 

"How unbounded the influence of foreign visitors upon the ignorant inhabitants 
of the Pacific! If the thousands of our countrymen who visit this ocean w-ere actu- 
ated by the pure principles of the religion of Jesus, how immense the good they 
might accomplish! But, alas! how few visitors to the Western hemisphere are 
actuated by such principles." 

This is preparatory to the condemnation of Cook in these terms: "Captain 
Cook allowed himself to be worshipped as a god. Tlie people of iCealakeakua de- 



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VIEW NE.\R INDANCi, CAVITE PKOVINOE, ALONG TIBAGAS RIVER. 



EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 285 

clined trading with him, and Joaded his ?liip freely with tliebest pruductions of 
the island. The priests approached iiiin in a crouching attitude, uttering prayers. 
and exhibiting all the formalities of worship. After approaching him with prostra- 
tion the priests cast their red kapas over his shoulders and then receding a little, they 
presented hogs and a variety of other offerings, with long addresses rapidly enun- 
ciated, which were a repetition of their prayers and religious homage. 

■'When he went on shore most of the people fled for fear of him, and others 
towed down before liim, with solemn reverence. He was conducted to the house 
of the gods, and into the sacred enclosure, and received there the highest homage. 
In view of this fact, and of the death of Captain Cook, which speedily ensued, who 
can fail being admonished to give to God at all times, and even among barbarous 
tribes, the glory which is his due? Captain Cook might have directed the rude and 
ignorant natives to the great Jehovah, instead of receiving divine homage himself. 

'■Kalauiopuu, the king, arrived from Maui on the 24th of January, and imme- 
diately laid a tabu on the canoes, which prevented the women from visiting the 
ship, and consequently the men came on shore in great numbers, gratifying their 
infamous purposes in exchange for pieces of iron and small looking-glasses. Some 
of the women washed the coating from the back of the glasses much to their regret, 
when they found that the reflecting property was thus destroyed. 

"The king, on his arrival, as well as the people, treated Captain Cook with much 
kindness, gave him feather cloaks and fly brushes and paid him divine honors. 
This adoration, it is painful to relate, was received without remonstrance. I shall 
speak here somewhat minutely of the death of Captain Cook, as it develops some 
traits of the heathen character, and the influence under which the heathen suffer 
from foreign intercourse." 

After setting forth the horrible character of the natives. Captain Cook ^s con- 
demned and denounced because he did not refuse the homage of the ferocious savages, 
paid him as a superior creature. One of Cook's troubles was the frantic passion 
the islanders had to steal iron. The common people were the property of the chiefs, 
and they had no other sense of possession. They gave away what they had, but took 
what they wanted. 

Mr. Dibble shows his animus when he charges that Cook did not give the natives 
the real value of their hogs and fruit, and also that he had no right to stop pilferers 
in canoes by declaring and enforcing a blockade. This is a trifling technicality 
much insisted upon. Dibble's account of the death of Cook is this: 

"A canoe came from an adjoining district, bound within the bay. In tlie canoe 
were two chiefs of some rank, Kekuhaupio and Kalimu. The canoe was fired upon 



•286 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 

from one of the boats aiul Kaliinu was killed. Kekuhaupio made the greatest speed 
till he I'caelu'd the jjlace oi the king, where Captain Cook also was, and communi- 
cated the intelligence of the death of the chief. The attendants of the king were 
enraged and showed signs of hostility, but were restrained by the thought that 
Captain Cook was a god. At that instant a warrior, with a spear in his hand, -c^j- 
proached Captain Cook and was heard to say that the boats in the harbor had 
killed his brother, and he would be revenged. Captain Cook, from his enraged 
appearance and that of the nuiltitude, was suspicious of him, and fired upon him 
with his pistol. Then followed a scene of confusion, and in the midst Captain Cook 
being hit with a stone, and perceiving the man who threw it, shot him dead. He also 
struck a certain chief with his sword, whose name was Kalaimanokahoowaha. The 
chief instantly seized Captain Cook with a strong hand, designing merely to hold 
him and not to take his life; for he supposed him to be a god and that he could not 
die. Captain Cook struggled to free himself from the grasp, and as he was about 
to fall uttered a groan. The people immediately exclaimed, "He groans — lie is not 
a god," and instantly slew liim. Such was the melancholy death of Captain Cook. 

"Immediately the men in the boat commenced a deliberate fire upon the crowd. 
They had refrained in a measure before, for fear of killing their Captain. Many of 
the natives were killed." 

"Historian Dibble does not notice the evidence that Cook lost his life Ijv turning 
to his men in the boats, ordering them not to fire. It was at that moment he was 
stabbed in the back. Dibble represents the facts as if to justify the massacre of the 
great navigator, because he allowed the heathen to think he was one of their gang of 
gods. But this presumption ought not to have been allowed to excuse prevarica- 
tion al.)out testimony. The iiiipnrtancc of Dibl)lc's history is that it is representa- 
tive, lie concludes with this eloquent passage: "From one heathen nation we 
nuiy learn in a measure the wants of all. .\iid we ought not to restrict our view, 
but, look at the wide world. To do then for all nations what I have urged in be- 
half id' the Sandwich Ishmds, liow great and extensive a work! How vast the num- 
ber of men and how immense the amotuit of means which seem necessary to elevate 
all nations, and gain, over the whole earth to the permanent dominion of the Lord 
Jesus Christ! Can 300,000,000 of pagan children and youth be trained and in- 
structed by a few hands? Can the means of instructing them be furuishcil by the 
mere farthings and pence of the church? Will it not be some time yet before minis- 
ters and church members will need to be idle a moment for the want of work? Is 
there any danger of our being cut off from the bles-ed privilege either of giving or 
of going? There is a great work yet to be done — a noble work — a various and a 



EARLY IIlSTUliY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 287 

difticult work — a work woilliy ul' God's power, God"s resources, and God's W'sdom. 
What cliri.-ti'iulum has a* yet done is scarcely worthy of being called a commence- 
ment. When God shall bring such energies into action as shall be commensurate 
with the greatness of the work — when he shall cause every redeemed sinner, by 
the abundant influence of His Holy Spirit, to lay himself out wholly in the great 
enterjjrise, then there will be a sight of moral sublimity that shall rivet the gaze of 
angels." 

We quote this writer as to what became of the remains of Cook: "The body of 
Captain Cook was carried into the interior of the island, the bones secured accord- 
ing to their custom, and the flesh burned in the fire. The heart, liver, etc., of Cap- 
tain Cook, were stolen and eaten by some hungry children, who mistook them in the 
night for the inwards of a dog. The names of the children were Kupa, Mohoole and 
Kaiwikokoole. These men are now all dead. The last of the number died two 
years since at the station of Lahaina. Some of the bones of Captain Cook were 
sent on board his ship, in compliance with the urgent demands of the officers; and 
some were kept by the priests as objects of worship." The "heart, liver, etc.," were 
of course given to the children to eat! The bones are still hidden, and presumably 
not much worshiped. The first of the remains of Captain Cook given up was a 
mass of his bloody flesh, cut as if from a slaughtered ox. After some time there 
were other fragments, including one of his hands which had a well known scar, 
and perfectly identified it. Along with this came the story of burning flesh, and 
denials of cannibalism. Mr. Dibble speaks of Cook's "consummate folly and out- 
rageous tyranny of placing a blockade upon a heathen bay, which the natives could 
not possibly be supposed either to understand or appreciate." That blockade, like 
others, w-as understood when enforced. The historian labors to work out a case to 
justify the murder of Cook because he received worship. As to the acknowledgment 
of Cook as the incarnation of Lono, in the Hawaiian Pantheon, Captain King says: 

"Before I proceed to relate the adoration that was paid to Captain Cook, and the 
peculiar ceremonies with which he was received on this fatal island, it will be nec- 
essary to describe the Morai, situated, as I have already mentioned, at the south 
side of the beach at Kakooa (Kealakeakua). It was a square solid pile of stones, 
about forty yards long, 'twenty broad, and fourteen in height. The top was flat and 
well paved, and surrounded by a wooden rail, on which were fixed the skulls of the 
captives sacrificed on the death of their chiefs. In the center of the area stood a ruin-- 
ous old building of wood, connected with the rail on each side by a stone wall, 
which next divided the whole space into two parts. On the side next the country 
were five poles, upward of twenty feet high, supporting an irregular kind of scaffold; 



288 EARLY HISTOKY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

on the opposite side toward the sea, stood two small houses with a covered communi- 
cation. 

"We were conducted by Koah to the top of this pile by an easy ascent leading 
from the beach to the northwest corner of the area. At the entrance we saw two 
large wooden images, with features violently distorted, and a long piece of carved 
wood of a conical form inverted, rising from the top of their heads; the rest was 
without form and wrapped round with red cloth. We were here met by a tall young 
man with a long beard, who presented Captain Cook to the images, and after chanting 
a kind of hymn, in which he was joined by Koah, they led us to that end of the 
llorai where the five poles were fixed. At the foot of them were twelve images 
ranged in a semicircular form, and before the middle figure stood a liigh stand or 
table, exactly resembling the Whatta of Othaheiti, on which lay a putrid hog, and 
under it pieces of sugar cane, cocoanuts, bread. fruit, plantains and sweet jtotatoes. 
Koah having placed the Captain under the stand, took down the hog and held it 
toward him; and after having a second time addressed him in a long speech, pro- 
nounced with mueli vehemence and rapidity, he let it fall on the ground and led 
him to the scaffolding, which they began to climb together, not without great risk of 
falling. At this time we saw coming in solemn procession, at the entrance of the top 
of the Moral, ten men carrying a live hog and a large piece of red cloth. Being 
advanced a few paces, they stopped and prostrated tliemselves; and Kaireekeea, the 
young man above mentioned, went to them, and receiving the cloth carried it to 
Koah, who wrapped it around the Captain, and afterwards offered him the hog, 
which was brought by Kaireekeea with the same ceremony. 

'"Whilst Captain Cook was aloft in this awkward situation, swathed round with 
red cloth, and with difficulty keeping his' hold amongst the pieces of rotten scaf- 
folding, Kaireekeea and Koah began their office, chanting sometimes in concert and 
sometimes alternately. This lasted a considerable time: at lengtb Koah let the 
hog drop, when he and the Captain descended together. He then led him to the 
images before mentioned, and. having said something to each in a sneering tone, 
snapping his fingers at them as he passed, he brought him to that in the center, 
which, from its being covered with red cloth, appeared to be in greater estimation 
than the rest. Before this figure he prostrated himself and kissed it, desiring Cap- 
tain Cook to do the same, who suffered himself to be directed by Koah throughout 
the whole of this ceremony. 

"We were now led back to the other division of the ^Morai, where there was a 
space ten or twelve feet square, sunk about three feet below the level of the area. 
Into this we descended, and Captain Cook was seated between two wooden idols, 



EARLY HISTOKY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 289 

Koah supporting one of his arms, whilst I was desired to support the other. At 
this time arrived a second procession of natives, carrying a baked hog and a pudding, 
some bread fruit, cocoanuts and other vegetables. When they approached us Kai- 
reekeea put himself at their head, and presenting the pig to Captain Cook in the 
usual manner, began the same kind of chant as before, his companions making 
regular responses. We observed that after every response their parts became grad- 
ually shorter, till, toward the close, Kaireekeea's consisted of only two or three 
words, while the rest answered by the word Orono. 

"When this offering was concluded, which lasted a quarter of an hour, the na- 
tives sat down fronting us, and began to cut up the baked hog, to peel the vegetables 

and break the cocoanuts; whilst others employed themselves in brewing the awa, 
which is done by chewing it in the same manner as at the Friendly Island. Kairee- 
keea then took part of the kernel of a coeoanut, which he chewed, and wrapping 
it in a piece of cloth, rubbed with it the Captain's face, head, hands, arms and shoul- 
ders. The awa was then handed around, and after we had tasted it Koah and 
Pareea began to pull the flesh of the hog in pieces and put it into our mouths. I had 
no great objection to being fed by Pareea, who was very cleanly in his person, but 
Captain Cook, who was served by Koah, recollecting the putrid hog, could not 
swallow a morsel; and his reluctance, as may be supposed, v,-as not diminished when 
the old rnan, according to his own mode of civility had chewed it for him. 

"When this ceremony was finished, which Captain Cook put an end to as soon as 
he decently could, we quitted the Moral." 

Evidently the whole purpose of Captain Cook in permitting this performance, 
was to flatter and gratify the natives and make himself strong to command them. 
The Captain himself was. sickened, and got away as quickly as he could without 
giving offense. This was not the only case in which the native priests presented the 
navigator as a superior being. Perhaps the view the old sailor took of the style 
of ceremony was as there were so many gods, one more or less did not matter. Cook 
never attached importance to the freaks of superstition, except so far as it might be 
made useful in keeping the bloody and beastly savages in check. Bearing upon 
this point we quote W. D. Alexander's "Brief History of the Hawaiian People," 
pages 3.3-34: 

"Infanticide was fearfully prevalent, and there were few of the older women 
at the date of the abolition of idolatry who had not been guilty of it. It was the 
opinion of those best informed that two-thirds of all the children born were de- 
stroyed in infancy by their parents. TTiey were generally buried alive, in many cases 
in the very houses occupied by their unnatural parents. On all ihe islands the num- 



2dO EAKLY IIISTOKY OF THE SAXDWICH ISLANDS. 

'jer of males was much greater than that of females, in consequence of the girls 
being more frequently destroyed than the boys. The principal reason given fjr it 
was laziness — unwillingness to take the trouble of rearing children. It was a very 
common jjractice for parents to give away their children to any persons uliu were 
willing to adopt them. 

'•No regular parental discipline was maintained, and the children were too often 
left to follow their own inclinations and to^ become familiar with the lowest vices. 

"Neglect of the helpless. Among the common people old age was despised. TIk' 
sick and those who had become helpless from age were sometimes abandoned to die 
or put to death. Insane people were also sometimes stoned to death." 

Again we quote Alexander's History, page 49: 

"Several kinds of food were forbidden to the women on pain of death, viz., 
pork, bananas, cocoauuts, turtles, and certain kinds of fish, as tJic ulua, the huiiui. 
the shark, the hihimanu or sting-ray, etc. The men of the poorer class often formed 
a sort of eating club apart from their wives. These laws were rigorouslj* enforced. 
At Honaunau, Hawaii, two young girls of the highest rank, Kapiolani and Keoua, 
having been detected in the act of eating a banana, their kahn. or tutor, was held re- 
sponsible, and put to death by drowning. Shortly before the abolition of the tabus, 
a littk child had one of her eyes scooped out for the same offense. About the same 
time a woman was put to death for entering the eating house of her husband^ al- 
though she was tipsy at the time." 

Captain Cook seems to have committed the unpardonable sin in not beginning 
the stated work of preaching the gospel a long generation before the missionaries 
arrived, and the only sound reason for this is found in Dibble's History, m his state- 
ment that the islanders steadily degenerated until tlie missions were organized. 

Writers of good repute, A. Fnrnander, chief of them, are severe with Captain 
Cook on account of his alleged greed, not paying enough for the red feathers woven 
into fanciful forms. Perhaps that is a common fault in the transactions of civilized 
men with barbarians. William Penn is the only man wftli a great reputation for 
dealing fairly with American Eed Men, and lie was not impoverished by it. Cook 
gave nails for hogs, and that is mentioned in phrases that are malicious. Iron was 
to the islanders the precious metal, and they were not cheated. A long drawn out 
efl'orthas been made to impress the world thatCook thought himself almost a god, and 
was a monster. The natives gave to the wonderful people who came to them in ships, 
liberally of their plenty, and received iu return j)resenfs that pleased tbcin. arficles 
of utility. Beads came along at a later day. The natives believed Cook one of 
the heroes of the imagination that they called gods. He sought to proiiitiate them 



EARLY lilSTOKY OF TllK SAXDWICII ISI.AXDS. 291 

and paid for fruit and meat in iron and sliowy trifles. His policy of progress was to 
introduce domestic animals. 

Note the temper of Mr. Abraham Fornander. a man who has meant honesty of 
statement, but whose information was jierverted: 

"And how did Captain Cook requite this boundless hospitahty, tliat never once 
made default during liis long stay of seventeen days in Kealakeakua, these mag- 
nificent presents of immense value, this delicate and spontaneous attention to every 
want, this friendship of the chiefs and priests, this friendliness of the common 
people? By imposing on their good nature to the utmost limit of its ability to re- 
spond to the greedy and constant calls of their new friends; by shooting at one of 
the king's officers for endeavoring to enforce a law of the land, an edict of his 
sovereign that happened to be unpalatable to the new comers, and caused them 
some temporary inconvenience, after a week's profusion and unbridled license; 
by a liberal exhibition of his force and tiie meanest display of his bounty; by giving 
the king a linen shirt and a cutlass in return for feather cloaks and helmets, which, 
irrespecti-ve of their value as insignia of the highest nobility in the land, were worth 
singly at least from five to ten thousand dollars, at present price of the feathers, 
not counting the cost of manufacturing; by a reckless disregard of the proprieties 
of ordinary intercourse, even between civilized and savage man, and a wanton insult 
to what he reasonably may have supposed to have been the religious sentiments 
of his hosts." This is up to the mark of a criminal lawyer retained to prove by 
native testimony that Captain James Cook was not murdered, but executed for cause. 
The great crime of Cook is up to this point that of playing that he was one of the 
Polynesian gods. Fornander says: "When the sailors carried off, not only the rail- 
ing of the temple, but also the idols of the gods within it, even the large-hearted 
patience of Kaoo gave up, and he meekly requested that the central idol at least 
might be restored. Captain King failed to perceive that the concession of the 
priests was that of a devotee to his saint. The priests would not sell their religious 
emblems and belongings for "thirty pieces of silver," or any remuneration, but they 
were willing to offer up the entire Heiau, and themselves on the top of it, as a 
holocaust to Lono, if he had requested it. So long as Cook was regarded as a god 
in their eyes they could not refuse him. And thougli tliey exhibited no resentment 
at the request, the want of delicacy and consideration on the part of Captain Cook 
is none the less glaring. After his death, and when the illusion of godship had sub- 
sided, Ills spoliation of the very Heiau in which he had been deified was not one 
of the least of the grievances which native annalists laid up against him." 



•292 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

Contrast this flagrancy in advocacy of the cause of the barbarous uatives with 
the last words Cook wrote in his journal. We quote from "A Voyage to the 
Pacific Ocean," by Cajjtai'n James Cook, F. E. S., (A'ol. II., pages 2ol-2o2): 

"As it was of the last importance to procure a supply of provisions at these 
islands; and experience having taught me that I could have no chance to succeed 
in this, if a free trade with the natives were to be allowed; that is, if it were left 
to every man"s discretion to trade for what he pleased, and in what manner he 
pleased; for this substantial reason, I now published an order prohibiting all per- 
sons from trading, except such as should be appointed by me and Captain Clarke; 
and even these were enjoined to trade only for provisions and refreshments. Women 
were also forobidden to be admitted into the ships, except under certain restric- 
tions. But the evil I intended to prevent, by this regulation, I soon found had 
already got amongst them. 

"I stood in again the next morning till within three or four miles of the land, 
where we were met with a number of canoes laden with provisions. We brought 
to, and continued trading with the people ip them till four in the afternoon, 
when, having got a pretty good supply, we made sail and stretched off to the 
northward. 

"I had never met with a behavior so free from reserve and suspicion in my 
intercourse with any tribe of savages as we experienced in the people of this island. 
It was very common for them to send up into the ship the several articles they 
brought for barter; afterward, they would come in themselves and make tlieir bar- 
gains on the quarter-deck. 

"We spent the night as usual, standing off and on. It happened that four 
men and ten women who had come on board the preceding day still remained with 
us. As I did not like the company of the latter, I stood in shore toward noon, 
principally with a view to get them out of the ship; and, some canoes coming off, 
I took that opportunity of sending away our guests. 

"In the evening Mr. Bligh returned and reported that he had found a bay in 
which was good anchorage, and fresli water in a situation tolerably ea.'^y to be come 
at. Into this bay I resolved to carry the ships, there to refiit and supply ourselves 
with every refreshment that the place could afford. As night approached the 
greater part of our visitors retired to the shore, but numbers of them requested 
our permission to sleep on board. Curiosity was not the only motive, at least with 
some, for the next morning several things were missing, which determined me not 
to entertain so many another night. 



EAKLY IIJSTOKY OF THE SAXDWICII ISLANDS. • 29S 

"At eleven o'clock iu the forenoon we anchored in the bay, which is called 
by the natives Karakaooa, (Kealakeakua), in thirteen fathoms water, over a sandy 
botlum, and about a quarter of a mile from the northeast shore. In this situation 
the south point of the bay bore south by west, and the north point west half 
north. We moored with the stream-anchor and cable, to the northward, unbent 
the sails and struck yards and topmasts. The ships continued to be much crowded 
with natives, and were surrounded by a multitude of canoes. I had nowhere, in 
the course of my voyages, seen so numerous a body of people assembled in one 
place. Eor, besides those who had come ofE to us in canoes, all the shore of the 
bay was covered with spectators, and many hundreds were swimming around the 
ships like shoals of iish. We could not but be struck with the singularity of this 
scene, and perhaps there were few on board who lamented our having failed in our 
endeavors to find a northern passage homeward last summer. To this disappoint- 
ment we owed our having it in our power to revisit the Sandwich Islands, and to- 
enrich our voyage with a discovery which, though the last, seemed in many re- 
spects to be the most important that had hitherto been made by Europeans, through- 
out the extent of the Pacific Ocean." 

This is the end of Cook's writing. His murder followed immediately. He fell 
by the hands of people for whom his good will was shown in his last words. The- 
concluding pages of the journal answer all the scandals his enemies have so busily 
circulated. 

There is a gleam of humor that shows like a thread of gold in the midst of 
the somber tragedies of the Sandwich Islands, and we must not omit to extract 
it from "The Voyage of Discovery Around the World" by Captain George Van- 
couver, when he spent some time in Hawaii, and gives two bright pictures — one 
of a theatrical performance, and the other the happy settlement of the disordered 
domestic relations of a monarch. 

A GIFTED NATIVE ACTEESS AND SOME ROYAL DRAMATISTS. 

"There was a performance by a single young woman of the name of Puckoo, 
whose person and manners were both very agreeable. Her dress, notwithstanding 
the heat of the weather, consisted of an immense quantity of cloth, which was- 
wreaths of black, red and yellow feathers; but, excepting these, she wore no dress 
a manner as to give a pretty effect to the variegated pattern of the cloth; and was 
otherways disposed with great taste. Her head and neck were decorated with 
wreaths of black, red and yellow feathers; but, exceptmg these, she wore no dress 



25)4 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SAXDWICH ISLANDS. 

from the waist upwards. Her ankles, and nearly half way up her legs, were deco- 
rated with .several folds of cloth, widening upwards, so that the upper parts ex- 
tended from the leg at least IVuir inches ail round: this was encompassed hy a 
piece of net work, wrought very close, from the meshes of which were hung the 
.small teeth of dogs, giving this part of her dress the appearance of an ornamented 
funnel. On her wrists she wore bracelets made of the tusks of the largest hogs. 
Tiiese were highly polished and fi.\ed close together in a ring, the concave sides 
of the tusks being outwards; and their ends reduced to a uniform length, curving 
naturally away from the center, were by no means destitute of ornamental effect. 
Thus equipped, her appearance on the stage, before she uttered a single word, e.\- 
oited considerable applause. 

"These amusements had hitherto been confined to such limited performances; 
but this afternoon was to be dedicated to one of a more splendid nature, in which 
some ladies of consequence, attendants on the court of Tamaahmaah, were to per- 
form the principal parts. Great pains had been taken, and they had gone through 
many private rehearsals, in order that the exhibition this evening might be worthy 
of the public attention: on the conclusion of which, I purposed by a display of 
fireworks, to make a return for the entertainment they had afforded us. 

"About four o'clock we were informed it was time to attend the royal dames; 
their theatre, or rather place of exhibition, was about a mile to the southward of 
our tents, in a small square, surrounded by houses, and sheltered by trees, a situa- 
tion as well chosen for the performance, as for the accommodation of the specta- 
tors; who, on a moderate computation, could not be estimated at less than four 
thousand, of all ranks and descriptions of persons. 

'"The dress of the actresses was something like that worn by Puckoo, though 
made of superior materials, and disposed with more taste and elegance. A very con- 
siderable quantity of their finest cloth was jirepared for the occasion; of this their 
lower garment was formed, which extended from their waist lialf down their legs, 
and was so plaited as to appear very much like a hoop petticoat. This seemed the 
most difficult part of their dress to adjust, for Tamaahmaah, who was considered 
to be a profound critic, was frequently appealed to by the women, and his direc- 
tions were implicitly followed in many little alterations. Instead of the ornaments 
of cloth and net-work, decorated with dogs' teeth, these ladies had each a green 
wreath made of a kind of bind weed, twisted together in different parts like a rope, 
which was wound round from the ankle, nearly to the lower part of the petticoat. 
On their wrists they wore no bracelets nor other ornaments, but across their necks 



EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWRJI ISLANDS. 2<)r, 

and shoulders were green sashes, very nicely made, with the broad leaves of the 
tee, a plant that produces a very luscious sweet root, the size of a yam. This part 
of their dress was put on the last by each of the actresses; and the party being now 
fully atlired, the king and ijuucn who had been present the whole time of their 
dressing, were obliged to withdraw, greatly to the mortificatiou ot the latter, who 
would gladly have taken her part as a performer, in which slie was reputed to 
excel very highly. But the royal pair were compelled to retire, even from the ex- 
hibition as they are prohibited by law from attending such amusements, except- 
ing on the festival of the new year. Indeed, the performance of this day was con- 
trary to the established rules of the island, but being intended as a compliment to 
us, the innovation was permitted. 

"As their majesties withdrew, the ladies of rank and the principal chiefs began 
to make their appearance. Tlie reception of the former by the multitude was 
marked by a degree of respect that I had not before seen amongst any inhabitants 
of the countries in the Pacific Ocean. The audience assembled at this time were 
standing in rows, from fifteen to twenty feet deep, so close as to touch each other; 
but these ladies no sooner approached in their rear, in any accidental direction, than 
a passage was instantly made for them and their attendants to pass through in 
the most commodious manner to their respective stations, where they seated them- 
selves on the ground, which- was covered with mats, in the most advantageous sit- 
uation for seeing and hearing the performers. Most of these ladies were of a cor- 
pulent form, which, assisted by their stately gait, the dignity with which they 
moved, and the number of their pages, who followed with fans to court the refresh- 
ing breeze, or with fly-flaps to disperse the offending insects, announced their con- 
sequence as the wives, daughters, sisters, or other near relations of the principal 
chiefs, who, however, experienced no such marks of respect or attention themselves; 
being obliged to make their way through the spectators in the best manner they 
were able. 

"The time devoted to the decoration of the actresses extended beyond the limits 
of the quiet patience of the audience, who exclaimed two or three times, from all 
quarters, "Hoorah, hoorah, poaliealee," signifying that it would be dark and black 
night before the performance would begin. But the audience here, like similar 
ones in other countries, attending with a pro-disposition to be pleased, was in good 
iuunor. and was easily appeased, by the address of our faithful and devoted friend 
Trywhookee, who was the condueter of the ceremonies, and sole manager on this 
occasion. He came forward and apologizcvl by a speech that produced a general 



5nn EARLY HISTORY OF TIIK SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

laugh, and, causing tJie music to begin, we heard no further murmurs. 

"The band consisted of five men, all standing u^), each with a highly polished 
wooden spear in the left, and a small piece of the same material, equally well fin- 
i.-hed, in the right hand; with this they beat on the spear, as an accompaniment 
to their own voices in songs, that varied both as to time and measure, especially 
the latter; yet their voices, and the sounds produced from the rude instrument-, 
which differed according to the place on which the tapering spear was struck, ap- 
peared to accord very well. Having engaged us a short time in this vocal perform- 
ance, the court ladies made their appearance, and were received with shouts of the 
greatest applause. The musicians retired a few paces, and the actresses took their 
station before them. 

"The heroine of the {jiece, which consisted of four or five acts, had once shared 
the affections and embraces of Tamaahmaah, but was now married to an inferior 
chief, whose occupation in the household was that of the charge of the king's ap- 
parel. This lady was distinguished by a green wreatii round the crown of the head; 
next to her was the captive daughter of Titeeree; the third a younger sister to the 
queen, the wife of Crymamahoo, who, being of the most e.xalted rank, stood in 
the middle. On each side of these were two of inferior quality, making in all seven 
actresses. They drew themselves up in a line fronting that side of the square that 
was occupied by ladies of quality and the chiefs. These were completely detached 
from the populace, not by any partition, but, as it were, by the respectful consent 
of the lower orders of the assembly; not one of which tre-passed or produced Ihe 
least iuaccommodation. 

''This representation, like that before attempted to be described, was a compound 
of speaking and singing; the subject of which was enforced by gestures and actions. 
The piece was in honor of a captive princess, whose name was CryeowcuUeneaow; 
and on her name being pronounced, every one present, men as well as women, who 
v.'ore any ornaments above their waists, were obliged to take them off, though the 
captive lady was at least sixty miles distant. This mark of resjDcct was unobserved 
by the actresses whilst engaged in the performance: Init tlie instant any one sat 
down, or at the close of the act, they were also obliged to comply with this mys- 
terious ceremony. 

'■'The variety of attitudes into which these women threw themselves, with tiie 
rapidity of their action, resembled no amusement in any other part of the world 
witliin my knowledge, by a comparison witli which T might be enabled to convey 
some idea of the stage effect thus proJi:ccd, particularly in the first three parts,. 



EAELY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 29? 

in wliich tliere appeared much correspondence and liarmony between the tone of 
their voices and the display of their limbs. One or two of the performers being 
not quite so perfect as the rest, afforded us an opportunity of exercising our judg- 
ment by comparison; and it must be confessed, that the ladies wlio most excelled, 
exhibited a degree of graceful action, for the attainment of which it is difficult to 
account. 

"In each of these first parts the songs, attitudes and actions appeared to me of 
greater variety than I had before noticed amongst the people of the great South 
Sea nation on any former occasion. The whole, though I am unequal to its de- 
scription, was supported with a wonderful degree of spirit and vivacity; so much 
indeed that some of their exertions were made witii such a degree of agitating vio- 
lence as seemed to carry the performers beyond what their strength was able to 
sustain; and had the performance finished with the third act, we should have re- 
tired from their theatre with a much higher idea of the moral tendency of their 
drama, than was conveyed by the offensive, liljidinous scene, exliibited by the la- 
dies in the concluding part. The language of the song, no doubt, corresponded 
with the obscenity of tlieir actions; which were carried to a degree of extravagance 
that were calculated to produce nothing but disgust, even to the most licentious." 

From "A Voyage of Discovery," by Captain George Vancouver: 

THE RECONCILIATION BY STRATEGY OF A KING WITH ONE OF HIS 

QUEENS. 

"Tahowmotoo was amongst the most constant of our guests: but his dauo-hter, 
the disgraced queen, seldom visited oiir side of the bay. I was not, however, ig- 
norant of her anxious desire for a reconciliation with Tamaahmaah; nor was the 
same wish to be misunderstood in the conduct and behavior of the king, in whose 
good opinion and confidence I had now acquired such a predominancy tluit I be- 
came acquainted with his most secret inclinations and apprehensions. 

"His unshaken attachment and unaltered affection for Tahowmannoo was con- 
fessed with a sort of internal self conviction of her innocence. He acknowledged 
with great candor that his own conduct had not been exactly such as warranted 
his having insisted upon a separation from his queen; that although it could not 
authorize, it in some measure pleaded in excuse for her infidelity; and for his own, 
he alleged, that his high rank and supreme authority was a sort of licence for such 
indulgences. 

"An accommodation which I considered to be mutually wished by both parties 



298 EAELY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

was urged in tlic strongest terra? by the queen's relations. To effect this desira- 
ble purpose, my interference was frequently solicited by them: and as it concurred 
with my own inclination, I resolved on embracing the first favorable oppoii unity 
to use my best endeavors for bringing a reconciliation about. For although, on 
our foi-mer visit. Tahowmannoo had Ijeen regai'ded with the most favorable im- 
pression.s yet. whether from her distresses, or becau>e she had really improved iu 
her personal accomplishments, I will not take upon me to determine, but certain 
it is that one or both of these circumstances united had so far prepossessed us all 
in her favor, and no one more so than myself, that it had long been the general 
wish to see her exalted again to her former dignities. This desire was probably 
not a little heightened by the regard* we entertained for the happiness and repose 
of our noble and generous friend Tamaahmaah, who was likely to be materially 
affected not only in his domestic comforts, but in his political situation, by receiv- 
ing again and reinstating his consort in her former rank and consequence. 

"I was convinced beyond all doubt that there were two or three of tiu:- most 
considerable chiefs of the island whose ambitious views wore inimical to ihc in- 
terests and authority of Tamaahmaah; and it was much to be appreiicndcd tliat 
if the earnest solicitations of the queen's father (whose condition and imiiurtance 
was ne.xt in consequence to that of the king) should continue to be rejected, that 
there could be little doubt of his adding great strength and influence to the dis- 
contented and turbulent chiefs, which ^vould oi)erate highly to the prejudice, if 
not totally to the destruction, of Tamaahmaah's regal jiower: especially as the ad- 
verse party seemed to form a constant opposition, consisting of a minority by no 
means to be despised by the executive power, and which appeared 'to be a principal 
constituent part of the Owhyean politics. 

"For tJK'se substantial reasons, whenever he was disponed to listen to such dis- 
course, I did not cease to urge tlie importance and necessity of his ado]iting measures 
so highly essential to his happiness as a man, and to his power, interest and authority 
as the sujjrrme chief of the island. All this he candidly acknowledged, but his 
pride tlirew impediments in the way of a reconciliation, which were hard to be re- 
moved, lie W(uild not liimsclf become the immediate agent: and although he con- 
.«idered it imjiortant that the negotiation should be conducted by some one of the 
princi])al chiefs in his fullest confidence, yet. to solicit their good offices after 
having rejected their former overtures with disdain, was equally hard to recon- 
cile to bis feelings. T stood nearly in the same situation with his favorite friends: 
but being tboroughly convinced of the sincerity of his wishes, I spared him the 



EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICII ISLANDS. 299 

mortification of soliciting- tlie offices he had rejected, by again proffering my services. 
To this he instantly consented, and observed that no proposal could have met his 
mind so completely: since, by effecting a reconciliation through my friendship, 
no umbrage could be taken at his having declined the several offers of his country- 
men l)y any of the individuals; whereas, had this object l)een accomplished by any 
one of the chiefs, it would probably have occasioned Jealousy and discontent in 
the minds of the others. 

"All, however, was not yet complete; the apprehension that some concession 
might be suggested, or expected, on his part, preponderated against every other 
consideration; and he would on no account consent, that it should appear that 
he had been privy to the business, or that it had been by his desire that a negotia- 
tion had been undertaken for this happy purpose. I)ut that the whole should have 
the appearance of being purely the result of accident. 

"To this end it was determined that I should invite the queen, with several 
of her relations and friends, on board the Discovery, for the purpose of presenting 
them with some trivial matters, as tokens of my friendship and regard; and that, 
whilst thus employed, our conversation should be directed to ascertain whether an 
accommodation was still an object to be desired. That on this appearing to be 
the general wish, Tamaahmaah would instantly repair on board in a hasty man- 
ner, as if he had something extraordinary to communicate; that I should appear 
to rejoice at this accidental meeting, and by instantly uniting their hands, bring 
the reconciliation to pass without the least discussion or explanation on either side. 
But from his extreme solicitude lest he should in any degree be suspected of being 
concerned in this previous arrangement, a difficulty arose how to make him ac- 
quainted with the result of the proposed conversation on board, which could not 
be permitted by a verbal message; at length, after some thought, he took up two 
pieces of paper, and of his own accord made certain marks with a pencil on each of 
them, and then delivered them to nie. The difference of these marks he could 
well recollect; the one was to indicate that the result of my inquiries was agreeable 
to his wishes, and the other that it was contrary. In the event of my making use 
of the former, he proposed that it should not be sent on shore secretly, but in an 
open and declared manner, and by way of a Joke, as a present to his Owhyhean 
majesty. " The natural gaiety of disposition which generally prevails among these 
islanders, would render this supposed disappointment of the king a subject for 
mirth, would in some degree prepare the company for his visit, and completely 
do away with every idea of its being the effect of a preconcerted measure. 



300 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

'This plan was accordingly carried into execution un tlic following Monday. 
Whilst the queen and her piirtv. totally ign'orant of the contrivance, wei'c receiving 
the compliments I had intended them, their good humor and pleasantry were in- 
finitely heightened by the jest I proposed to pass upon the king, in sending him a 
piece of paper only, carefully wrapped up in some cloth of their own manufacture, 
accompanied liy a message: importing, tliat as I was then in the act of distributing 
favors to my Owhyhean friends, I had not been unmindful of his majesty. 

"Tamaahmaah no sooner received the summons, than he hastened on board, and, 
with his usual vivacity, exclaimed before he made his appearance that he was 
come to thank me for the present I had sent him. and for my goodness in not 
having forgotten him on this occasion. This was heard by everyone in the cabin 
before he entered: and all seemed to enjoy the joke except the poor queen, who 
appeared to be much agitated at the idea of being again in his presence. The in- 
stant that he saw her his countenance expressed great surprise, he became imme- 
diately silent, and attempted to retire; but, having posted myself for the especial 
purpose of preventing his departure, I caught his hand and. joining it witli the 
•queen's, their reconciliation was instantly completed. This was fully demonstrated, 
not only by the tears that involuntarily stole down the checks of both as they 
embraced each other and mutually expressed the satisfaction they experienced; but 
by the behavior of every individual present, whose feelings on the occasion were not 
to be repressed: whilst their sensibility testified the happiness which this appar- 
•ently fortuitous event had produced. 

"A short pause, produced by an event so unexpected, was succeeded by the sort 
of good humor that such a happy circumstance would naturally inspire: the con- 
versation soon became general, cheerful and lively, in whicli the artifice imagined 
to have been imposed upon the king bore no small share. A little refreshment from 
a few glasses of wine concluded the scene of this successful meeting. 

"After the queen had acknowledged in the most grateful terms the weighty ob- 
ligations which she felt for my services on this occasion, I was surprised by her 
saying, as we were all preparing to go on shore, that she had still a very great 
favor to request: wliich was. that T -honld obtain from Tamahmaah a solemn prom- 
ise that on her return to his habitation he would not beat her. The great cor- 
diality with which the reconciliation had taken place, and the hapjiiness that each 
of them had continued to express in consequence of it, led me at first to consider 
this entreaty of the queen as a jest only: Inn in this T was mistaken, for, notwith- 
standing that Tamaahmaah readily complied with my solicitation, and as-ured me 




33. In tlie Vallpys of Tarabao. 34. Street in the District (if Paco, Manila. 35. Aristocratic Residences 
m tlie Snburbs of San .Jnan ilel Monte. 30. Sqnare of Santa .\na in tlie District of San Sebastian, Manila. 
37. View of the Royal Hiclnvayof La Concepcion. 3S. The King's Wharf, Manila. 39. The .\guilar Barrier 
in Tonilo, Manila. 40. The Cathedral of .Jaro in Ilo-Ilo. 

VIEWS IN THE PHILIPPI.SES, MOSTLY IN AND AROUND MANILA. 



EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 30;i 

nothing- of the kind should take phicf. yet Tahowmannoo woukl not be satisfied 
ivitliout my accompanying them home to the royal residence, where I had the 
pleasure of seeing her restored to all her former honors and privileges, highly to 
the satisfaction of all the king's friends, but to tlic uitei- mortification of those who 
by their scandalous reports and misrepresentations had been the cause of the un- 
fortunate separtion. 

'"The domestic affairs of Tamaahmaah having thus taken so happy a turn, his 
mind was' more at liberty for political considerations: and the cession of Owhyhee 
to his Britannic Majesty now became an object of his serious concern.'' 



Captain Cook makes a strong plea in his journal that he was the very original 
discoverer of the Sandwich Islands. Referring to the wonderful extent of the sur- 
face of the earth in which the land is occupied Ijy the Polynesial race, he exclaims: 

"How shall we account for this nation's having spread itself, in so many de- 
tached islands, so widely disjoined from each other, in every quarter of the Pacific 
Ocean! We find it, from New Zealand in the South, as far as the Sandwich Islands, 
to the North! And, in another direction, from Easter Islands to the Hebrides! 
That is, over an extent of sixty degrees of latitude, or twelve hundred leagues, 
North and South! And eightj'-three degrees of longitude, or sixteen hundred and 
sixty leagues, East and West! How much farther, in either direction, its colonies 
reach, is not known; but what we know already, in consequence of this and our 
former voyage, warrants our pronouncing it to be, thougli perhaps not the most 
numerous, certainly, by far, the most extensive, nation upon earth. 

'•'Had the Sandwich Islands been discovered at an early period by the Span- 
iards, there is little doubt that they would have taken advantage of so excellent a 
situation, and have made use of Atooi, or some other of the islands, as a refresh- 
ing place to the ships, that sail annually from Acapulco for Manilla. They lie al- 
most midway between the first place and Guam, one of the Ladrones, which is at 
present their only port in traversing this vast ocean: and it would not have been a 
week's sail out of their common route to have touched at them; which could have 
been done without running the least hazard of losing the passage, as they are suf- 
ficiently within the verge of the easterly trade wind. An acquaintance with the 
Sandwich Islands would have been equally favorable to our Buccaneers, who used 
sometimes to pass from the coast of America to the Ladrones, with a stock of food 
and water scarcely suflficient to preserve life. Here they might alwaj's have found 
plenty, and have been within a month's sure sail of the very part of California 



304 EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 

which the ilanilla ship is obliged to make, or else have returned to the coa^t of 
America, thoroughly refitted, after an absence of two months. How- happv would 
Lord Anson have been, and what hardships he would have avoided, if he had 
known that there was a group of islands half way between America and Tinian, 
where all his wants could have been effectually supplied; and in describing which 
the elegant historian of that voyage would have presented his reader with a more 
agreeable picture than I have been able to draw in this chapter." 

And yet there seems to be reason for believing that there was a Spanish ship 
cast away on one of the Hawaiian group, and that their descendants are distinctly 
marked men yet: There was also a white man and woman saved from the sea at 
some unknown period, of course since Noah, and they multiplied and replenished, 
and the islanders picked up somewhere a knack for doing things in construction 
of boats and the weaving of mats that hint at a crude civilization surviving in a 
mass of barbarianism. 

Captain George Dixon names the islands discovered by Captain Cook on his 
last voyage: 

"Owhyhee (Hawaii), the principal, is the first to the southward and eastward, 
the rest run in a direction nearly northwest. The names of the principals are 
Mowee (Maui), Morotoy (Molokai), Ranai (Lanai), Whahoo (Oahu), Attooi (Kauai), 
and Oneehow (Niihau)." 

This account Di.xon gives of two curious and rather valuable words: "The 
moment a chief concludes a bargain, he repeats the word Coocoo thrice, with quick- 
ness, and is immediately answered by all the people in hi? canoe with the n^ord 
Whoah, pronounced in a tone of exclamation, but with greater, or less energj*, in 
proportion as the bargain he has made is approved." 

The great and celebrated Kamehameha, who consolidated the government of 
the islands, did it by an act of treachery and murder, thus told in xVlexander's 
history: 

"The Assassination of Keoua. — Toward the end of the year 1791 two of Kame- 
hameha's chief counsellors, Kamanawa and Keaw'eaheulu, were sent on an embassy 
to Keoua at Kahuku in Kau. Keoua's chief warrior urged him to put them to 
death, which he indignantly refused to do. 

"By smooth speeches and fair promises they persuaded him to go to Kawaihae, 
and have an interview with Kamehameha, in order to put an end to the war, which 
had lasted nine years. Accordingly he set out with his most intimate friends and 



EARLY HISTORY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 305 

twenty-four rowers in his own double canoe, accompanied by Keaweaheulu in an- 
otlier canoe, and followed by friends and retainers in other canoes. 

"As they approached the landing at Kawaihac, Keeaumoku surrounded Ke- 
oua's canoe with a number of armed men. As Kamakau relates: 'Seeing Kame- 
hameha on the beach, Keoua called out to him, "Here I am," to which he replied, 
"Rise up and come here, that we may know each other." ' 

"As Keoua was in the act of leaping ashore, Keeaumoku killed him with a 
spear. All the men in Keoua's canoe and in the canoes of his immediate company 
were slaughtered but one. But when the second division approached, Kamehameha 
gave orders to stop the massacre. The bodies of the slain were then laid upon the 
altar of Puukohola as an offering to the blood-thirsty divinity Kukailimoku. That 
of Keoua had been previously baked in an oven at the foot of the hill as a last 
indignity. This treacherous murder made Kamehameha master of the whole island 
of Hawaii, and was the first step toward the consolidation of the group under one 
government." 

This is one of those gentle proceedings of an amiable race, whose massacre of 
Captain Cook has been so elaborately vindicated by alleged exponents of civilization. 

There is found the keynote of the grevious native government in an incident 
of the date of 18-11 by which "the foreign relations of the government became 
involved with the schemes of a private firm. The firm of Ladd & Co. had taken 
the lead in developing the agricultural resources of the islands by their sugar plan- 
tation at Koloa and in other ways, and had gained the entire confidence of the 
king and chiefs. On the 24th of November, 1841, a contract was secretly drawn 
up at Lahaina by Mr. Brinsmade, a member of the firm, and Mr. Richards, and 
duly signed by the king and premier, which had serious after-consequences. It 
granted to Ladd & Co. the privilege of "leasing any now unoccupied and unim- 
proved localities" in the islands for one hundred years, at a low rental, each mill- 
site to include fifteen acres, and the adjoining land for cultivation in each locality 
not to exceed two hundred acres, with privileges of wood, pasture, etc. These 
sites were to be selected within one year, which term was afterwards extended to 
four years from date." 

Of course there are many safeguards, particularly in this case, but the points • 
of the possession of land conceded, the time for tlie people to recover their rights 
never comes. 

One of the difficulties in the clearing up of the foggy chapters of the history 
of the Hawaiian islands is that within the lifetime of men who were young at the 



306 EAELY HISTOKY OF TllK S.\.\l)\\l( II ISLANDS. 

close of the last eentury, the lluwaiiaii tongue beeanic a writieii language, and 
made the traditions of savages highly colored stories, in various degrees accord- 
ing to ignorance, prejudice and sympathy, accepted as liistorical. The marvels 
accomplished by the missionaries influenced them to deal gently with those whose 
conversion was a recognized triumph of Christendom, and there was an effort to 
condemn Captain Cook, who had affected to nod as a God, as a warning to blas- 
phemers. Still, the truth of history is precious as the foundations of faith to men 
of all races and traditions, and the Englishman who surpassed the French, Span- 
iards and Portuguese in discoveries of islands in the vast spaces of the Pacific 
Ocean, should have justice at the hands of Americans who have organized states 
and built cities by that sea, and possess the islands that have been named its para- 
dise because endowed surpassingly with the ample treasures of volcanic soil and 
tropical climate. There the trade winds bestow the freshness of the calm and mighty 
waters, and there is added to the bounty of boundless wealth the charms of luxuriant 
beauty. All Americans should find it timely to be just to Captain Cook, and claim 
him as one of the pioneers of our concjuering civilization. 



BOOK IV. 



THE PHILIPPINES. 



I 



INTRODUCTION. 



The articles relating to the Philippines in the Treaty of Peace with Spain 
are III, IT and V — ^as follows: 

"Article III. — Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as 
the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following 
line: 

"A line running from west to east along or near the twentieth parallel of north 
latitude, and through the middle of the navigable channel of Bachi, from the 
one hundred and eighteenth (118th) to the one hundred and twenty-seventh 
(127th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich,, thence along the one 
hundred and twenty-seventh (12Tth) degree meridian of longitude east of Green- 
wich to the parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes (4° 45') north latitude, 
thence along the parallel of four degrees and forty-five minutes (4° 45') north 
latitude to its intersection with the meridian of longitude one hundred and nine- 
teen degrees and thirtj-five minutes (119^ 35') east of Greenwich, thence along 
the meridian of longitude one hundred and nineteen degrees and thirty-five 
minutes (119° 35') east of Greenwich to the parallel of latitude seven degrees 
.nnd forty minutes (7° 40') north, thence along the parallel of latitude seven degrees 
and forty minutes (7° 40') north to its intersection with the one hundred and six- 
teenth (116th) degree meridian of longitude east of Greenwich, thence by a direct 
line to the intersection of the tenth (10th) degree parallel of north latitude with 
the one hundred and eighteenth (118th) degi-ee meridian of longitude east of 
Greenwich, and thence along the one hundred and eighteenth (llSth) degree 
meridian of longitude east of Greenwich to the point of beginning. 

"The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,- 
000,000), within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present 
treaty. 

"Article IV. — The United States will, for the term of ten years from the 
date of the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, admit Spanish ships 
and merchandise to the ports of the Philippine Islands on the same terms as ships 
and merchandise of the United States. 

"Article V. — The United States will, upon the signature of the present 

311 



312 IXTROItrcTIOX. 

treat)', send back to Spain, at its own cost, the Spanish soldiers taken as prisoners 
of war on the capture of Manila h\' the American forces. The arms of the soldiers 
in question shall be restored to them. 

"Spain will, npon the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty, pro- 
ceed to evacuate the Philippines, as well as the island of Guam, on terms similar 
to those agreed upon by the Commissioners appointed to arrange for the evacua- 
tion of Porto Eico and other islands in the West Indies, under the Protocol of 
August 13, ISDS, which is to continue in force till its provisions are completely 
executed. 

'"The time within which the evacuation of the Philippine Islands and Guam 
shall be completed shall be fixed by the two Governments. Stands of colore, 
uncaptured war vessels, small arms, guns of all calibres, with their carriages and 
accessories, powder, ammunition, livestock, and materials and supplies of all kinds, 
belonging to the land and naval forces of Spain in the Philippines and Guam, 
remain the property of Spain. Pieces of heavy ordnance, exclusive of field artil- 
lerj', in the fortifications and coast defenses, shall remain in their emplacements 
for the term of six months, to be reckoned from the exchange of ratifications of 
the treaty; and the L'nited States may, in the meantime, purchase such material 
from Spain, if a satisf actor}- agreement between the two Governments on the 
subject shall be reached." 

The treaty containing these provisions was signed by the American and Si)anish 
Commissioners in Paris, December 10, 1898, ratified by the United States Senate 
February 6, 1899, and received the President's signature of approval two days later. 
On this instrument is recorded the cession of Porto Rico, the relinquishment of 
Cuba and her fringe of islands, the surrender of Guam, and the abandonment of 
the Philipjiines, the loss by Spain of the last of her colonies that were once the 
distinction of her grandeur and the envy of other nations. It records also the 
signal triumph of American arms in the Indies East and West, on the seas and 
the islands. There is no other country where the management of a war so trium- 
phant would not be applauded universally — ^just cranks enough in antagonism to 
define clearly the overwhelming expression of the public opinion: no country in 
■which the acquisition of the fairest and richest islands in the world would not 
have been gratefully received as a glory and a benefaction. We find here a per- 
sistent fury of criticisms, and an industry artful and xmscrupulous, sensational and 
scandalous, in the propagation and circulation of misapprehension and widespread 
misrepresentation of facts, while the wail of the demagogue and the howl of the 
anarchist are heard over the jiayment proposed of 25 cents ca.<h by each of the 



INTRODUCTION. 31J 

American people for land equal to New England. New York and New Jersey in 
extent, and of immense resources in soil, minerals, fruits and staples, cotton, 
rice, copper, hemp, tobacco, sugar, and indigo, raised on one island. But the 
question of the Philippines has been referred to the American people, and they 
are talking it over in their own way, and conscious, we are glad to say, of the 
power they are exercising. It is true that the Philipjiines are far away, that there 
are demagogue incendiaries in the islands, a gang with arms in their hands posing 
as the whole people. It is on account of our methods of delay that the warfare 
around Manila has come about. The news of the day is common property all over 
the world, and Americans are known to the Philippines to be to some extent of 
uncertain temper, and every resolution that looks to running away from our 
conquest, afraid of ourselves, means the killing and wounding of more of the 
American boys, called for by Admiral Dewey when he had cleared the sea to hold 
the land. 

The publication of the i^rotocols of the commissions of the United States and 
Spain in Paris and the information sought and found touching the islands, shows 
how earnestly and laboriously our commissioners performed their duty — how they 
were resolved to become possessed of the whole truth and sought it at the ends of 
the earth. The documents submitted to the country along with the treaty trans- 
mitted by the President to the Senate, the injunction of secrecy removed January 
11, is a treasure of history. The light is poured u])on all the dark places. The 
commission investigated the state of the islands, summoning Mr. Foreman, the 
historian of the Philippines, and obtaining statements from the Belgian Consul 
and others of the gravest interest to all the people. The consular reports from 
the Asiatic cities giving the history of Aguinaldo and his policies, and proving his 
treacherous weaknesses and presumption shading gradually into intolerable inso- 
lence, are almost imknown to the public, and invaluable in tracing tlie influences 
that give trouble. The importance of Aguinaldo was factional until he managed 
to excite the imaginations of his susceptible tribe, while his association with the 
American victors over the Spaniards and his appropriation according to Filipino 
logic and sense, cf a great share of the credit of liberation — the wdrole of which, 
with the exception of an almost unappreciable fraction, belonged to the Amer- 
icans — made him the leader of those ignorant and easily agitated islanders who 
have been brought up in the belief that all government is tyranny and all races 
of European origin tyrants — whose whole education is that freedom should be 
exercised in fighting, and that the true aspiration of manhood is rather in leisure 
than in labor. If tliese people are let alone, they are industrious — that is, if 



;3i4 IXTRODL'CTIOX. 

they are not dragged from their homes by tribal influences and promises that they 
can enrich themselves by plundering those against whom they are prejudiced 
because they are in possession of a little property. It is on these lines that 
Aguinaldo's insignificance has been magnified until he has become idealized by 
the tragedians of statesmanship into a sort of a La Fayette, and his make-up out 
■of fantastic endowments passes him along as an imperial creature, an insurgent 
who is to be commended because he is a revolutionist, no matter what the cause 
behind him or how much scandal and fraud there is in the manifest and gro- 
tesque deception. He has put his fanciful and fraudulent prestige to the bloody 
test of war and will be unmade as he was made — he took on his. sudden accession 
of greatness and he will perish by the sword of America. The pages of this book 
give the history that is expressly applicable to the enlightenment of the people for 
the solution of the problems of the Philippines. 

General Merritt's opinion was, when questioned closely by the commissioners, 
that from twenty-five thousand to thirty tliousand trooi^s would be wanted for 
a time in the Philippines if we held them, but that after a time there would not 
be need of so large a force, and the soldiers needed might be largely enlisted from 
the Philippines themselves. 



CHAPTER I. 

OUR INTEREST IX THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 

Character of Filipinos and Their Oppression by the Spaniards — The Furtive Leader 
Agiiinaldo — His Professions and Proceedings — Cash for Peace and a Bribe 
for Banishment — Early Indications of Impertinence — Deception of Our 
Consuls. 

General Aguinaldo made a treaty with the Spaniards, and with thirty-two of 
his "compatriots" accejited $4:00,000 in Mexican money, $200,000 in gold, and 
betook themselves to Hongkong, where this leader had nothing to say for some 
time. He had been brought up in such an atmosphere of oppression that he could 
not understand freedom of speech, and liberty to him was a mystery. The Span- 
iards were to pay more money, but were false to all their promises, as is their 
way in such cases, and the treaty was regarded with contempt by the officers of 
Spain of all grades. They had robbed a bank in Manila, and while Aguinaldo took 
a vacation at Hongkong the Siianisli had a season of comparative rest, but theji-e 
appeared another swarm of insurgents, under another leader, and there was the 
accustomed skirmishing, ambiiscades, expeditions, assassinations, executions, and 
the fleet that Dewey destroyed, the most efficient weapon of the Spaniards. When 
our war with Spain broke out, Aguinaldo was at Singapore, attempting to organize 
and equip for a return to Luzon. He was in high favor and had much corre- 
spondence with our consuls at Singapore, Manila and Hongkong, who gave no 
consideration to Talleyrand's order to his staff in the foreign office of France — 
"Above all, no zeal." At the suggestion of the Hongkong consul Admiral Dewey 
cabled to Aguinaldo to Join him at once, but moved with so much rapidity that 
the insurgent chieftain did not get to Hongkong until the day after Dewey's vic- 
tory in Manila Bay, and when he arrived at Cavite, finding the Americans in pos- 
session, and himself welcomed as a friend, the prestige of the American victory 
gave the Filipino guerrilla an immense send-off as the representative man of his 
countrj-men. As far as the news spread the insurgents gathered and swarmed 
to the standard of Aguinaldo, and he soon began to have visions of grandeur, and 
to assume the haughty airs of a conqueror. Before the American troops arrived 
he became troublesome and desired to dictate to those who had taken him out of 
the exile to which he had betaken himself with a certified check. The fact that 

315 



;n() UUR INTEREST IN THE I'll ILU'l'LXK ARCHIPELAGO. 

lie did not divide tlie proceeds with iiis iiaitners in retirement, but held the 
Mexican silver fast for Agoncillo to buy arms with, is relied upon as proof of his 
integrity. 

One of the earliest revelations of his sinister policy was in a letter to General 
T. M. Anderson, who commanded the first American troops to arrive at Cavite, 
July 23, 1898, that his object in leaving Hongkong was to "prevent" his "country- 
men from making common cause with the Spanish against the North Americans," 
and he made haste to notify Anderson "of the undesirability of disembarking 
North American troops in the places conquered by the Filipinos from the Spanish 
without previous notice to this government." 

Now-, this government was the machine he set up, and he further mentions 
"the necessity that before disembarking troops you should communicate in writing 
to this government the jilaces that are to be occupied and also the object of your 
occupation." Thus this "La Fayette"' was already supercilious and dictatorial and 
in a pert and shabby way bent upon insulting, interfering with and harassing 
his friends and benefactors. Since the frozen snake that the woodman in the 
fable warmed before the fire, there has been no case of ingratitude more instruct- 
ive as a lesson of inherent viciousness. The serpent of the tropics changes his 
stripes and becomes more subtle and deadly than his kind in the north temperate 
zone, but his poison is ranker and in propensities and accomplishments lie is more 
sulitle. This fanciful and malicious pretender gabbling about George Washing- 
ton not having thought of himself as a La Fayette, for if he knew* something. about 
the beloved Frenchman who came to help us in our need he knew that he was 
fighting an army of La Fayettes who had broken the chains with which he and 
his race had been bound to a horrible servitude. He was taking this high ground 
of sovereignty three weeks before the fall of Manila. There was not a chance 
worth international consideration that the Filipinos ever could take that city. It 
was far beyond their power to do more than skirmish in the suburbs. Until the 
Spanish fleet was destroyed the most warlike of their proceedings was to raid the 
country villages in the neighborhood of the town. August first Aguinaldo wrote 
the x^nierican Consul at ilanila, that oflicial then being with Admiral Dewey: 
"I was brought from Hongkong to assure those forces by my presence that the 
Filipinos would not make common cause with tlie Spaniards." 

The small dictator proceeded to say the Americans were only passably co-op- 
erating with the Filipinos — that is, they were not consulting and deferring to 
him. As soon as serious operations were undertaken against ^fanila by the Amer- 
ican army the first thing needful was to crowd the I'biliiijiine insurgents out of the 



OUR INTEREST IX THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. :!!? 

way. Tliey -were not besieging the town, Ijut popjiing around the edges and had 
to be removed from groimd needed to carry on a real siege. They did not fire a 
shot witliin a mile of an armed Spaniard on the day the American colors floated 
over Manila, and they were ordered to stand back, because it was known they 
would sack the town, Aguinaldo crying by letter to General Anderson that his 
troops had been "promised they were to appear in Manila." This is what he had 
promised and he wanted to "avoid any conflict which would be fatal to the interests 
of both peoples," adding, "My troops are forced from yours Ijy means of threats 
of violence to retire from positions taken." Of course they had to go, but they 
had taken no positions. Then he wanted "joint occupation," and has been a 
nuisance ever since, and we have statesmen who are quoting Abraham Lincoln 
as saying, "no man is wise enough to govern another,'" as though this fragile, 
malignant and preposterous imjwrialist was the foreordained creature to rule 
millions who have never been consulted about him. The Belgian Consul at Manila, 
Mr. Andre, estimates the mxmber of Philipi)ine insurgents to be about one in two 
hundred of population. It is the same story we had in Cuba, that the United 
States troops should, when they conquered the island, assume that the guemlla 
bands must be held to be the great and only "people." There never was a more 
atrocious imposition upon human nature. The opposition congressmen have 
been constant and loud in eloquence to the effect that the Cuban and Philippine 
people were exclusively the bands of bushwhackers; that the army of Gomez, 150 
strong, the fire bugs of the cane fields, were the true and sovereign populace of 
the Queen of the Antilles and must take possession of all the lucrative branches 
of the government and gorge themselves at once with the jilunder won by American 
blood. 

Aguinaldo, on authority of the Consul at Manila, is "not permitted by his 
people to personally lead in battle" — of course not! He is not that kind of a 
hero. He is an Asiatic potentate, who speaks of "his" people and is too thoughtful 
to go on the fire line. He wrote General Merritt: "I have permitted the use of 
water" — that is, he had "permitted" the American soldiers who had freed Manila 
from Spanish tyranny to have the city supply of water from the mountains instead 
of compelling them to partake of the tainted supplies of the old cistern! That 
was benevolence! If the insurgents had not "permitted" the water to flow they 
would have been driven away from the waterworks, enough of them shot to instruct 
the rest. There was a rush of fiery statesmen made just before we were at war with 
Spain to "recognize the alleged belligerent rights" of the "alleged Republic of Cuba" 
in such form that our troops would have been under the authority of the alleged 



;J18 OLK INTEREST IX THE PHILIPPINE AIU IIIPELAGO. 

Cuban chieftains, and the general result, the pecuniary plethora of the fire bug 
financiers, glad to have our assistance in floating at a good figure an issue of bonds 
to make up for the Cuban "debt"' the United States had declined to pay. The 
great first principle in Cuba seems to be to have a big "debt" to be liquidated in 
good time by the United States. The cane was burned and the tobacco trampled 
to furnish security for Cuban bonds. 

The victor}' of the American arms in the battles of JIanila on the bay and the 
shore have thrown upon us great responsibility, and the condition of the islands 
before we became acquainted with them by possessing them is of the highest 
interest, because the better we understand the people the more certainly and 
effectively we can apply the policy of reconstruction demanded after the demolition 
of the Spani.sh edifice. Our very zealous and active Consul at Manila. ^Ir. Oscar 
F. Williams, writing from his consulate February 22, 1898, says: 

'"Peace was proclaimed, and since my coming festivities therefor were held; but 
there is no peace, and has been none for about two years. Conditions here and 
in Cuba are practically alike. War exists, battles are of almost daily occurrence, 
ambulances bring in many wounded, and hospitals are full. Prisoners are brought 
here and shot without trial, and Manila is under martial law. 

'"The Crown forces have not been able to dislodge a rebel army within ten 
miles of Manila, and last Saturday, February ID, a battle was there fought and 
five dead left on the field. Much of such information is found in my longer 
dispatch, referred to, and which is at your command. 

''The Governor-General, who is amiable and popular, having resigned, wishes 
credit for pacification, and certain rebel leaders were given a cash bribe of $1,650,- 
000 to consent to public deportation to China. This bribe and deportation only 
multiplied claimants and fanned the fires of discontent. 

"Insurgents demand fewer exactions from church and state, a half of public 
ofiices, and fewer church holidays, which seriously retard business. 

"A republic is organized here, as in Cuba. Insurgents are being armed and 
drilled; are rapidly increasing in numbers and efficiency, and all agree that a 
general uprising will come as soon as the Governor-General embarks for Spain, 
which is fixed for March. 

"While some combatant regiments have recently been returned to Spain, it 
was for appearance only, and all authorities now agree that unless the Crown 
largely re-enforces its army here it will lose possession." 



OFK IXTEEEST IN THE PHILIPPINE AECHIPELAGO. 319- 

"Consulate of the United States, 
"Manila, Philippine Islands, March 19, 1898. 

"Sir: Matters are in a serious state here. I liave daily communication hy 
cable and letter with Commodore Dewey, but we pass letters by British and other 
shipmasters and by private parties, because cables and letters are tampered with. 

"Insurrection is rampant; many killed, wounded, and made prisoners on 
both sides. A battleship, the Don Juan de Austria, sent this weeli to the northern 
j)art of Luzon to co-operate with a land force of 2,000 dispatched to succor local 
forces, overwhelmed by rebels. 

"Last night special squads of mounted police were scattered at danger points 
to save Manila. 

"I caution Americans against bearing arms in violation of local law, although 
threats have been made by Sjianiards that all Americans would soon have their 
throats cut. Certain ones are so frightened as to frequently come to my consulate 
and hotel, and spies watch all my movements. 

"IJebellion never more threatening to Spain. Eebels getting arms, money, 
and friends, and they outnumber llie Spaniards, resident and soldiery, probably 
a hundred to one. 

"Eeport says that Holy Week the insurgents plan to burn and capture Manila."' 

Mr. ^^■iIliams to Mr. Cridler, ilarch 2'!, says: 

"Having given daily information to Commodore Dewey as to disturbances here 
I have assumed that he informed the Wasliington Government, and I have writ- 
ten little on war matters. 

"Cuban conditions e.xist here possibly in aggravated form. Spanish soldiers 
are killed and wounded daily, despite claimed pacilication, and the hospitals are 
kept full. 

"Tlie majority of casualties are reported from the ranks of tlie native insur- 
gents, and the cruelties and horrors of war are daily repeated. 

"Cavite is the naval port of Luzon, situated about eight miles across the bay 
from Manila, and about twenty miles distant by way of bay shore and public high- 
way, and last Thursday, March 2-1, a Crown regiment of natives, the Seventy- 
fourth, stationed there was ordered to advance against native insurgents near by. 
The regiment refused to obey orders, and eight corporals were called out and shot 
to death in presence of the regiment, which w-as again ordered to advance and 
threat made that a refusal would be death to all. All did refuse and were sent 
to barracks to await sentence. On the morning of the following Friday, March 25, 
the entire regiment, with arms and equipment, marched out of the barracks and 
deserted in a body to the insurgents, saying they were willing to fight the foreign 
enemies of Spain, but would not fight their friends. 

"Since beginning this dispatch I learn of the desertion to the insurgents of 
another entire regiment. These are said to be the severest set-backs received by 
Spain during the two years' insurrection here. 



:i2i) on; IXTEEKST IX THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO. 

'*0n Friday iiioniiug, ilarcli 23, a church hohday, a meeting of natives was 
being held near my consulate in llanila, the natives being unarmed. The building 
was surrounded by police and military, the meeting broken up, twelve natives 
wantonly shot to death, several wounded, and sixty-two taken prisoners. Satur- 
day morning, March 2C, the sixty-two prisoners were marched in a body to the 
cemetery and shot to death. 

"The Crown forces are now building a cordon of small forts on city's out- 
f^kirts for defense against provincial natives, who are expected to soon attack Manila. 
In fact, two detectives and one messenger have come to me this evening with 
information that attack was to be made to-night, and everybody is anxious, as 8,000 
native insurgent soldiers are encamped only five miles away. 

"The insurgents seem to lack arms and organization, but, so far as I can 
learn, outnumber the Spanish forces and inhabitants twenty to one. Arms are 
being obtained and organization slowly effected, and all classes fear the near 
future. It is said that the only reason why Manila has not been taken and burned 
is because a vast majority of its population is in perfect accord with the insurgents. 

"Last week, Thursday, March 24, at Cavite, near here, the Seventy-fourth 
Spanish Eegiment, recruited among the natives of the southern islands of this 
group, refused to obey orders and attack the native insurrectionists. Eight cor- 
porals w6re called out and shot to death in presence of the regiment. Again 
orders to advance were given and disobeyed, when death to all was threatened. 
The regiment expressed a willingness to fight the foreign enemies of Spain, but said 
they would all be shot rather than fight their friends. All were sent to barracks 
to be pimished later, but the next morning all took arms and deserted to the 
insurgents. 

"On Friday, March 25, a church and legal holiday, unarmed natives were 
holding a meeting near my consulate. The building was surrounded by police 
and the suspicious military, the meeting broken up, twelve natives shot to death, 
several wounded, and sixty-two prisoners taken, certain of whom were mere passers- 
by, not having attended the meeting. The next morning these sixty-two prisoners, 
without form of trial, were marched in a bodj' to the cemetery and all shot to death. 

"Hardly a day passes without such scenes of middle-age treachery and bar- 
barity. A recent uprising at Cape Tiolinao, on the northwest coast of this island 
(Luzon), about 300 miles from JIanila, was crushed by united action of two regi- 
ments of infantry aided by the battleship Don Juan de Austria. A British ship- 
master there at the time reports about forty killed and forty woimded. ' After 
surrender the Spaniards put dead and wounded together in a house, and, by 
burning it, cremated all. 

"Months ago pacification was claimed by the Governor-General. It was false. 
A truce had been bought with $1,C.jO,00(), during which the Governor-General 
hoped to embark for Spain, but all was a hollow farce. The Madrid Government 
seems now to understand all, and the Governor-General has been ordered to remain, 
and his appointed successor sent to one of the provinces. 







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STEAMSHIP PASSINti A l)l;KI)(iK AT KANTARA, SUEZ lANAL. 







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HARBOR AT PORT SAID. ENTRANCE TO SUEZ CANAL. 



OUR INTEREST IN THE PHILirPlNE ARClliPELAGO. a^H 

"Now 5,000 armed rebels, which for days have been encamped near Manila 
and have been re-enforced from the monntains, plan to attack the city to-niyht. 
All is excitement and life uncertain." 

This is the official report of the ilanila situation before the fleet of Admiral 
Dewey steamed across the sea of China to Ijreak the power of Spain, but not to 
establish a government of guerrillas to wipe out the Spanish civilization, which 
was, in a sense, barbarous, but not savage. A proclamation was issued at Hong- 
kong by the Filipino Junta just before Dewey sailed containing these paragraphs: 

"At the present moment an American s(|uadron is preparing to sail for the 
Philippines. 

"We, your brothers, are very much afraid you may be induced to fire on the 
Americans. No, brothers, never make this mistake. Rather blow your own brains 
out than fire a shot or treat as enemies those who are your liberators. 

"Your natural enemies, your executioners, the authors of your misery and 
unhappiness, are the Spaniards who govern you. Against these yon must raise 
your weapons and odium; understand well, against the Spaniards, and never against 
the Americans. 

"Take no notice of the decree of the tiovernor-Ueneral, calling you to arms, 
although it may cost you your lives. Rather die than be ungrateful to our Amer- 
ican liberators. 

"There, where you see the American flag flying, assemble in numbers; tlicy 
are our redeemers." 

There was a strong tendency in our able and interesting Consuls at Hong- 
kong, Manila and Singapore to be too familiar, sympathetic and co-operative with 
the two or three "people'' of the Philippines — Aguinaldo and his interpreter — and 
Mr. F. Agoncillo, the Aguinaldo agent, modestly manifested at Washington he 
seemed to expect a call to be the Dean of the diplomats by common consent, at- 
tempted, November 3, 1897, to ojjcn a trade with the United States for arms! 
He then held a commission giving unlimited power to conclude treaties with foi'- 
■eign governments. This powerful personage wanted the United States to supply 
20,000 stand of arms to the l-'ilipinos, "to be paid for on the recognition of his 
government by the United States. He pledged as security two provinces and the 
cust(un-house at Manila. He is not partictdar about the price — is willing the 
I'nited States should make 25 per cent and 30 per cent profit." This diplomatic 
gentleman had commercial instincts and was willing to see the United States 
make some money! It was very kind of him, but our Consul with whom he com- 
municated was instructed to be "brief" with him and not encourage his advances. 
Secretary Day, June 16, telegraphed: 



324 UIK INTEREST IX THE PHILIITIXE AECHIPKLAGO. 

"Consul-General Pratt: Avoid unauthorized negotiations witli Phili]ipiue in- 
surgents." 

On till' :;aiiR' date the Secretarj' wrote ilr. Pratt: 

"To ohtain the uneonditional personal assistance of General Aguinaldo in the 
expedition to Manila was proper, if in so doing he was not induced to form hopes 
which it might not be practicable to gratify. This Government has known the 
Philippine insurgents only as discontented and rebellious subjects of Spain, and 
is not acquainted with their purposes. While their contest with that power has 
been a matter of public notoriety, they have neither asked nor received from this 
Government any recognition. The United States, in entering upon the occupation 
of the islands, as the result of its military ojjerations in that quarter, will do in 
the exercise of the rights which the state of war confers, and will expect from 
the inhabitants, without regard to their former attitude towards the Spanish 
Government, that obedience which will be lawfully due from them. 

"If, in the course of your conferences with General Aguinaldo. you acted upon 
the assumption that this Government would co-operate with him for the further- 
ance of any plan of his own, or that, in accepting his co-operation, it would con- 
sider itself pledged to recognize any political claims which he may put forward, 
your action was unauthorized, and can not be approved. Respectfullv yours, 

"wiLi,i.\:\i I!. "day." 

There has not appeared any clearer definition than tliis of the policy of the 
United States in dealing with insurgents. It is solid sense and will stand. The 
tone of our representatives at this time was extremely eulogistic of Aguinaldo and 
needed the cooling apidication it got. Mr. E. Spencer Pratt, Consul-General to 
the United States at Singapore, wrote after Aguinaldo had sailed for Hongkong: 

"Considering the enthusiastic manner General Aguinaldo has been received 
by the natives and the confidence with which he already appears to have inspired 
Admiral Dewey, it will be admitted, I think, that I did not overrate his impor- 
tance and that I have materially assisted the cause of the T'nited States in the 
Plnlip]nnes in securing his co-operation. 

"^^^ly this co-operation should not have been secured to us during the months 
General Aguinaldo remained awaiting events in Hongkong, and that he was allowed 
to leave there without having been ajjproached in the interest of our Government, 
I can not understand. 

"Xo close observer of what had transi)ired in the Philip])ines during the past 
four years could have failed to recognize that General Aguinaldo enjoyed above 
all others the confidence of the Filipino insurgents and the respect alike of Span- 
iards and foreigners in the islands, all of whom vouched for his high sense of 
justice and honor." 



OUK IXTEKEST IN THE PHILIPPINE AECHIPELAGO. 325 

Aguinaldo had impresr^ed all our Consuls that he was almost a great and good 
American, and ilr. Wildman, Consul at Hongkong, wrote July 18, 1898: 

"I have lived among the Malays of the Straits Settlements and have been an 
honored guest of the different sultanates. I have watched their system of govern- 
ment and have admired their intelligence, and I rank them high among the semi- 
civilized nations of the earth. The natives of the Philippine Islands belong to the 
Malay race, and, while there are very few pure ilalays among their leaders, I think 
their stock has rather been improved than debased ijy admixture. I consider the 
forty or fifty Philippine leaders, with whose fortunes I have been very closely con- 
nected, lioth the superiors of the Malays and the Cubans. Aguinaldo, Agoncillo, 
and Sandico are all men who would be leaders in their separate departments 
in any country, while among the wealthy Manila men, who live in Hongkong and 
who are spending their money liberally for the overthrow of the Spaniards and 
the annexation to the United States, men like the Cortes family and the Basa 
family, would hold their own among bankers and lawyers anywhere. 

'T believe I know the sentiments of the political leaders and of the moneyed 
men among the insurgents, and, in spite of all statements to the contrary, I know 
that they are fighting for annexation to the I'nited States first., and for independ- 
ence secondly, if the United States decides to decline the sovereignty of the islands. 
In fact I have had the most prominent leaders call on me and say they would 
not raise one finger unless I could assure them that the United States intended 
to give them United States citizenship if they wished it." 

The exaggerated rumors were afloat about the proceedings of our Consuls with 
the insurgents, and Assistant Secretary of State Moore cabled Wildman at Hong- 
kong, August 6, that if a report in the Daily Mail of what he had written Aguin- 
aldo was correct, "your action is disapproved, and you are forbidden to make 
pledges or discuss policy." The reply of Mr. Wildman was that he "never made 
pledges or discussed policy of America with Aguinaldo further than to try to hold 
him to promises made before Dewey took him to Cavite." Williams of Hong- 
kong said: 

"On May 2 Aguinaldo arrived in Hongkong and immediately called on me. 
It was May 16 before I could obtain permission from Admiral Dewey to allow 
Aguinaldo to go by the United States ship McCulloch, and I put him aboard in 
the night. According to his own statements to me by letter, he has been approached 
by both the Spaniards and the Germans, and has had tempting offers made him 
by the Catholic Church." 

It was the fixed faith of Wildman that the great majority of Aguinaldo's fol- 
lowers "had l)ut one desire — wanted to become citizens of the United States." 



CHAPTER II. 
THE IMPORTANT STATEMENT OF THE BELGIAN CONSUL AT MANILA. 

The True Inwardness of the Philippine Situation by a Friend of Admiral Dewey, 
Mr. Andre, Belgian Consul at Manila — A Letter from Andrew Carnegie 
That Is One of His Mistakes — General Menitt's Opinions at Paris — Mr. 
Andre's Memorandum in Full — Leading People of JIanila Wish to Become 
Citizens of the United States — How General Merritt Drew the Line on 
Aguinaldo and Foretold the Way Trouble Would Come. 

When a memorandum prepared by the Belgian Consul at ilanila was about 
to be read before the American Commission at Paris fashioning the Peace Protocol 
into a Treaty of Peace, General Merritt, said (we quote the official report of the 
proceedings): 

'"General Merritt: 'That is rather important. The man is an intelligent man. 
He expresses himself very poorlj' in English, and I have tried to have his report 
corrected to an extent, but I think a good deal of reliance can be placed upon it. 
He is very earnest in ho])ing that the Spanish will be excluded and the Filipinos 
not allowed to govern themselves, but some government established there which 
will protect the merchants and business men. It might be remarked that he is 
largely interested in business matters, and has been there, I tliink. for about four- 
teen years; is quite a wealthy man, and gives his views from tliat standpoint." 

"The statement was then read by the secretary. 

"Jfr. Frye: 'How old a man is he?' 

"General ilerritt: 'He is quite a young man. He tells me he has been there 
fourteen years. He states his case entirely from the point of view of a rich mer- 
chant. He iloes not sign himself as the Belgian Consul, because he said he could 
not do so, but he gives his statement as his personal opinion. He seems to think 
the Ignited States is engaged in a crusade for the benefit of the oppressed of all 
lands.' 

'"Mr. Gray: 'Where is tliis ISelgian ( onsul resident?' 

"General Men-itt: "In Manila."'' 

General Merritt's remarks hardly present the full force of the instructive testi- 
mony of the Belgian Consul. He was of great service to Admiral Dewey and influ- 
ential in iii)]iressing the Spaniards of the absolute necessity there was to be quiet 
while the American Admiral abstained from bombiU'ding the city, and the preven- 
tion of widespread destruction and much bloodshed is largely credited to this 



STATEMENT OF THE BELGIAN CONSUL AT MANILA. 327 

Consul, Mr. Andre, one of the closest friends of Admiral Dewey, whom he assisted 
in supplying his crews with fresh meat, a service of which ilr. Aivdrew Carnegie 
spoke in his mournful letter to the Secretary of Agriculture, the Hon. James 
Wilson, in these distressful words: 

"The good work you are doing for the agricultural interests of the country 
induces me to call your attention to the following: 

"PEO VISIONS FROM AFSTEALIA FOR DEWEY'S FLEET. 

"Vancouver, Britisli Columljia, December 2, 1898. 

"Advices from New South Wales say that the steamer Cugon has sailed from 
Sydney with a cargo of provisions for Rear Admiral Dewey's fleet at Manila. The 
cargo consists of 5,000 carcasses mutton, 250 lambs, 125 tons of potatoes, 81 tons 
of onions, and 22 tons of carrots. 

"Secretary Gage finds 'commercial expansion' a sufficient reason for recanting 
his former opinions and becoming an imperialist. Is this a sample of the 'com- 
mercial expansion' which has captivated him, I wonder? Mr. Secretary, none 
know better than yourself that the 'open door' which the President has given to 
the foreigner in the Philijipines means the 'closed door' to the ])roducts of the soil 
and of the mine of your own country. The foreigner gets the trade — the American 
pays the taxes! 

"The Philippine Treaty is soon to come before the Senate. Surely every farmer 
of the United States can look to you, as the head of the Agricultural Department, 
to secure a change in the clause which puts the producers of America, l)oth of the 
soil and of the mine, at so serious a disadvantage, being thousands of miles farther 
away. 

■"One would have thought tliat the food of our soldiers might have been pur- 
chased by the Government upon the Pacifie coast; but even San Francisco is thou- 
sands of miles farther from the Philippines than the competitive agricultural 
country of Australia. Even India is nearer still. As the New York Tribune justly 
says, 'The Philippines are 7,000 miles away; far nearer to other great powers or 
their possessions than to us, and belonging to the geographical and commercial 
system of another continent.' 

"Knowing your strict guardianship of the interests of agriculture in this 
country, I beg to lay the sul)ject before you, knowing that you will give it due 
attention. 

'"With sincere congratulations u]ion your successful work in various directions, 
very respectfully jours, ANDREW CARNEGIE." 

^ir. ( 'arnegie is the greatest manufacturer of steel in the world, but as an 
agriculturist he is not a conspicuous success, and as an American statesman he 
has intervals of melancholy inaccuracy. 



■S■^S STATEMENT OF THE BELGIAN COXSI'L AT MANILA. 

It was necessary the men of the American fleet in Maniha Bay should be sup- 
plied with fresh meat, and it could not be procured in a few days from the United 
States. The transports had been taken up to convey the troops. Beef experiments 
were going on, but the meat spoiled in a few hours. Consul Andre was immensely 
useful at this juncture. Mr. Carnegie should restore his reason before delivering 
further judgments. When the author of this volume was calling on Admiral Dewey 
aboard the flagshij) Olympia he asked the famous victor in the May-day battle three 
months and three weeks before as to the beef question, and the Admiral pointed 
to a long iron ship, his nearest neighbor, and said it was a Belgian vessel and 
fitted for "cold storage."' "You see the smoke from her funnel," said thQ 
Admiral. "They are making ice with fire, and they can produce a temperature 40 
degrees below zero. The Australian beef and mutton aboard are perfectly pre- 
served;" and he added, "if it is thawed slowly it is as good as if the animals had been 
killed but a few hours before, and the quality of it excellent." The conditions 
preventing obtaining meat from the L'nited States at that time were exceptional, 
and Mr. Carnegie's letter is not impressive. He is too passionate, whom protection 
has made so rich he is a free trader. 

Mr. Andre was careful not to present his views to the Paris commission 
as the Belgian Consul at Manila, but in a strictly personal capacity. We quote 
what he had to say in full: 

"Manila, August 29, 1898. 

"The future of the Philippine Islands is an eager and most interesting ques- 
tion; and if the United States does not take these islands under their protection, 
the country will be utterly ruined and all the foreign merchants will leave these 
islands. 

"The retention of the Island of Luzon only is not enough, and only a half 
measure, and the United States must take all or nothing. If the south of the 
Philippines remains in the hands of Spain, the insurgents will attack these islands 
and they will be in a constant revolt, exactly as happened in Cuba, and the L'nited 
States will have a second edition of what has happened already, and will prepare 
a second war for the same reasons. 

"Spain will always remain as she is now. She will even be exactly the same 
under any form of government. The numerous empleados (officeholders) will 
always be the plague of all the ministers and always want lucrative posts, with 
a high pay. They will never admit that it woujd be better for them and their 
country to work. As the positions of these empleados (officeholders) are very 
uncertain, their only object is, as soon as they occupy their posts, to make as much 
money as they can. Even those who occupy the very highest posts in the Philip- 
pines only attend to their own fortune and hardly pay attention to public afTairs. 



STATEMENT OF THE BELGIAN CONSUL AT MANILA. 329 

As they give the example of a most corrupt administration, they arc unable to pre- 
vent their subordinates to do the same. The justice is lilvewise mismanaged, and 
wlien the accused does not bribe the judges they will leave them in jail for 
years without paying the slightest attention to these unfortunates, and some of 
these prisoners have been in jail more than ten years. 

"The monks, more united, have always taken advantage of the troubled state 
■of affairs and offered tlieir protection to those who consented in allowing the money 
of the government to go in their hands. They exacted all the money that they could 
of the Indians, and the Spanish governors protected openly these extortions. Sucli 
state of things exasperated the Filipinos, and those who suffered the most began 
the rebellion with a fury that astonished everybody. 

"The rebellion broke out from the lower classes, and they still predominate 
in the actual rebellion. Even the chiefs are ancient tenants of the monks. The 
rebellion has no committee or representatives in the Fnited States, as the Cubans. 
This proves that those who revolted only act as mechanics and not as an intellectual 
people. Those who are in Hongkong, and represent there the revolution, went 
there as fugitives to escape from Manila, and later on they formed a meeting, and 
no serious man will admit that they are leading men of the revolution. Their 
names are not even known in ^Manila. 

"The Indians are good soldiers, and suffer very little of tlie war. They can 
stay for days in the swamps, or can make a long march in this hot climate without 
injury. White men can not stand it, and it must be recognized that if the Indians 
are very poor leaders in politics they are good enough soldiers to be taken 
in good consideration. 

"Since the Americans arrived in the Philippines a new period seems to take 
place, and many members of the upper classes of the Mestizos appeared among 
the rebels, and since then it has been possible to discuss some matters and to 
demonstrate to them that if fbey wanted to be taken into consideration that they 
must act as civilized people, and not retain as prisoners private citizens, women, 
and children, and drop many abuses that they commit exactly as the Spaniards 
have done and taught them. During the blockade of Manila many prominent 
families of Mestizos preferred to take refuge among the insurgents rather than stay 
at the mercy of the Spanisli authorities in Manila, whose arbitrary acts are too 
well known. 

"There is actually in Europe and Paris an important colony of Filipinos be- 
longing to the leading families of Manila, and these appear to be actually the 
representatives of the rebels. The principal of them pretended, however, that 
he never rebelled, and claimed his properties seized by the Spanish Government. He 
bribed the judges, and they publicly recognized that he never was a rebel, and 
restored his properties. Now he is the chief representative of the rebels. His 
name is P. P. Eoxas. This duplicity is not much in his favor, but it reveals the 
character of the Indians or Mestizos, and in all their acts it will be remarked that 
they never are sincere. 



:{:50 STATEMENT OF THE BELCIAX CONSUL AT MANILA. 

"Money is what means the most to tlie rebellion, and this leads the rebels 
to many unlawful acts. Until the present time most all the money has been raised 
from the lower classes. The higher classes gave very little, and these are very 
unwilling to facilitate funds. This class is composed entirely of usurers and 
pawnees. All the pawnshops and gambling-houses belong to the principal Mestizos 
families. There is not one family free of that stigma. This proves enough the 
morality of them, and what can be expected of them. They surely will not risk 
their ca]>ital in the rebellion, because they are not sure enough that they will be 
repaid with interest. They do not care a snap for the country, and numy told 
me that they would be glad to see the United States take these islands under their 
protection and put an end to the constant appeal for funds from the rebels. This 
was said to me by Bemito Legarda, a rich Mestizo, who was with Aguinaldo in 
Bacoor and acted as counsel, and this deceived him. 

"In the }ilantations Ijelonging to the rich families of Mestizos or Indians, the 
workmen are treated very inhumanly. If they do not work quick enough they 
treat them exactly as slaves were treated in South America. The most common 
punishment is to lash their backs with a thin bamboo: twenty-five lashes is the most 
ordinary punishment. I saw some receive 100 lashes in Negros Island, in the estate 
of Aniceto Lacson, an Indian. One hundred and twenty-five lashes were given 
to a man in Albay (south of Luzon) by the Indian Mayor of Albay. The same 
man threatened to give 100 lashes to one of my workmen, but his wife warned 
me and I stopped it. Since then I stoi^ped always this treatment when I happened 
to know it, and more than once had rows about it with the Spanish Governor 
of the province, ilr. Yaldes. This was in 1892. He told me that he would jiut 
me in prison if I interfered with the authorities. The custom all over the Philip- 
pines is to engage men and to pay for them their personal papers. This is the 
besinnins: of a debt that will make a slave of a man; for each dollar advanced an 
interest of 5 cents is added. At the slightest fault the man is fined and his debt 
grows. Whenever he needs money to baptize a baby or bury a parent the planter 
])ays the fees direct to the curate, and always adds to the small sum advanced two 
or three dollars and the 5 cents for interest. This last way is the most heavy 
yoke. At the end of the year he owes his master $50 or $G0, and as long as 
he does not ]iay his debt he is considered as a slave, and if he runs away he will 
be arrested and returned to his master and is awfully lashed. 

"\Yhen an estate is sold, nearly always the papers are accompanied with a list 
of the debtors. The buyer makes a bargain and buys the debts, and those who 
owe the money become his slaves. This is about the same as buying the slaves 
with a plantation. Now, the Mestizos and- Indians are the hardest masters, and if 
ever they dominate they will be most despotieal to the Indians. The Spanish 
Government always tolerated this, and even protected those who used to treat the 
men as slaves and allowed the pirates to abuse the poor Indians. Therefore it is 
easy to show the Indian that it would be much better for him to be ruled by 
Americans than by his own countrymen. Whatever may be the education of the 



STATEMENT OF THE llELCIAX COXSUL AT MANILA. 331 

Mestizos, they alwavs will behave just the same as the Indians, from whom they 
descend. They will eat with their hands, go barefooted, and sit on the ground. 
There is an enormous difference between them and n wliite man. 

"In the assemblies of the chiefs of the rebels and of the Mestizos of JIanihi, 
even when very serious matters were discussed, they used to joke one with the 
other and give his neighbor a nip and a laugh and behave as monkeys would do. 
This happened the 21st of June in the house of P. Paterno in ilanila, and in I'avite 
in the house of Ozorio on the 3d of August. 

"The Chinese IMestizos join the sordidness of the Indian to the craftiness of 
the Chinaman, and give the type of the rapacious Pawnee. The Spanish Mestizo 
joins the presumption of the Spaniard w-ith the duplicity of the Indian, and give 
the type of the Sioux. 

■■This is enough, I believe, to give a very slight idea of what the I-"ilii)inos 
are and to demonstrate that they belong to an inferior race, unfitted to rule a 
country, and with such individuals distinguished rules must not be expected. 

"Of course the education and example given by the monks and Spaniards 
is the ])rincipal cause, but even then they are worse than their masters, and that 
proves their inferiority, and therefore it is more than time that the I'nited States 
should have pity on these people and show them better. 

"The Spaniards, with their accustomed carelessness, are unable to manage 
properly the Philijijiines, and these rich islands, which contain gold, iron, coal, 
etc., and on which splendid forests are abandoned; there is only one very little 
raih\ay, hardly some good bridges and no harbors. Nothing has been done with 
the $15,000,000 that these islands give annually. 

"■The foreign merchants in Manila are constantly robbed l.iy the custom-house 
officers, and no protection is given to them. If a merchant makes a claim, he will 
be bothered all the year round. The Enited States can assure a steady govern- 
ment in these islands, and in their hands the country will increase in wealth, and 
will, in a short time, be able to return to the United States the money laid out; 
and it would be certainly much cheaper and more humane to take the entire 
Philippines than to keep only ]iart of it and to run the risk of a second war with 
Spain for the very same reason that provoked the present conflict. It is a duty of 
the Enited States to do .so and to protect the entire country. Everybody in the 
Philij)pines begs them for protection: even the Spanish merchants. Now, U is to 
be hoped that the Enited States will not deceive those who anxiously await the 
result of the meeting in Paris. 

"The Indians do not desire independence. They know that they are not strong 
enough. They trust the Enited States, and they know that they will be treated 
rightly. The present rebellion only represents a half per cent of the inhabitants, 
and it would not be right to oblige (5,000.000 inhabitants to submit to 30,000 rebels. 
Luzon is only partly held by them, and it is not to be expected that a civilized 
nation will make them present with the rest of the island, which is hostile to the 
Tagals of Luzon. The Spanish officers refuse to fight for the sake of the priests, 



333 STATEMKXT OF TliK BELGIAN LOXSL'L AT MAMLA. 

and if the Sjianisli (iovernnieut slioiild retain the Philippines their sohliers will all 
fall prisoners in the hands of the Indians in the same way as they did already, 
and this is heeaiise the anny is siek of war without result, and only to put the 
country at the mercy of the rapacions empleados and luxurious monks. 

''The monks know that they are no more wanted in tlii' Philippines, and they 
asked me to help them to go away as soon as possible, and it is principally for 
them that I asked for the transjiorts to the T'nited States Government, and to send 
them to Hongkong. The Indians will he delighted to see them go, and will he 
grateful to the I'nited States. 

"If some chiefs of the rehellion will he a little disap])ointed in their personal 
jn'ide, they will be convinced that it is better for them to submit in any case, for 
most of these chiefs prefer American authority, and they are very anxious to 
know the result of the meeting of Paris. 

"If the I'nited States keeps the islands they will remain ipiiet, hut if the 
Spanish authority is restored in the islands, or part of them, they will attack 
the S]ianiards and be in a constant revolt. This has lieen told to me by Aguinaldo, 
liaiubco, Zironui, JIabim, aiu1 other j>rincii)al chiefs, and repeated on Sunday, 
-28th of August. Very respectftdly. ANDRE." 

.Mr. .\ndre represents something more than a rich man's view, as General 
Merritt related. lie sjieaks for all the property that stands between the people 
and utter poverty, and for a government that is conservative of the rights of 
industry. He also states that the Indians as a mass do not desire independence. 
The reason is they know that the Aguinaldo Tagal disorderlies would be greater 
despots, robbers and cut-throats than the Spaniards themselves; and Jlr. Andre 
adds the insurgent clement represented one-half per cent of the inhabitants before 
the United States seemed shaky. The considerable force of Tagalos and some other 
tribesmen gathered in the jungles about Manila, have been rallied because the 
uncertain attitude of this country has been disturbing, ai)d the disaffected dema- 
gogues and military managers of the Malays who have drawn the first full breath 
of their lives under American protection, are not to be depended upon as a "stable 
government." 

The idea would not have prevailed to a very mischievous extent if it had not 
been for the prolongation of the debate in the Senate; and the information of 
the Filipino agents at Washington was that we were a halting, timid, stumbling 
parcel of partisans incapable of governing ourselves and not to be trusted in 
friendship or as protectors. The correspondence following shows the movement 
in Manila, submitting allegiance to the Government of the United States: 



STATEMENT UE THE ]5EE(iE4X CONSUL AT MANILA. 333 

MR. WILDMAN TO MR. DAY. 

Consulate of the United States, 

Hongkong, ilay 6, 1898. 
Sir: Supplementary to my cable of this date, I have the honor to inclose, 
ty request, statement of Don Dorotes Cortes, Don Maximo Cortes, and Dona 
Eustaquia, wife of Don ilaximo; also like statement of Arcadio Rosario, Gracio 
Gonzaga, and Don Jose Maria Basa, all very wealthy landholders, bankers, and 
advocates of Manila. 

They desire to tender their allegiance and the allegiance of their powerful fam- 
ilies in Manila to the United States. They have instructed all their connections 
to render every aid to our forces in Manila. 

Tlie letters to the President, inclosed, explain themselves. 
I have the honor to be, etc., 

ROUNSEYILLE WILDMAN, Consul. 



MR. CRIDLER TO MR. WILDMAN. 

June 16, 1898. 
Sir: The Department has received your dispatch No. 42, of the 6th ultimo, 
reporting that a number of influential families of Manila desire to tender their 
allegiance to the United States. 

In reply I have to inform you that a copy has been sent to the War Depart- 
ment, with the suggestion that the information be conveyed to General Merritt. 
•Respectfully yours, THOS. W. CRIDLER, 

Third Assistant Secretary. 



MR. WILDMAN TO MR. DAY. 

Consulate of the United States, 

Hongkong, May 14, 1898. 
Sir: I have the honor to inclose, by request, the statements of Severino Rotea, 
Claudio Lopez, A. II. JIarti, and Eugenia Fiona, all wealthy and prominent land- 
holders of the Philippine Islands. 

They desire to submit their allegiance and the allegiance of their families 
in the Philippine Islands to the United States. 

The letters to the President inclosed explain themselves. 
I have the honor to be, etc., 

ROUNSEYILLE WILDMAN, Consul. 



To the President of the United States of North America: 

Severino Rotea and Lopez, proprietor and farmer, native of Negros Oriental 
(Yisayas), Philip])ine Islands, with great consideration exposes: 



:?:U STATK:MKXT OF THE BELGIAN CONSUL AT MANILA. 

Having known the history and Constitution of tlie noblest liberal and rightful 
nation of the United States, he willingly adheres to the Government in annexing 
his country, and it will be for him a great honor to be joined it as soon as an 
additional star to the victorious flag of the United States of America and con- 
sidered him as one of its citizens. 

Hongkong, May 11, 1898. 

(Signed) SEVEKINO KOTEA. 



To the President of the United States of America: 

Claudio Lopez, merchant and proprietor and vice-consul of Portugal at Iloilo, 
native of the Philippine Islands, emigrant to this colony of Hongkong for political" 
causes, exposes with great consideration: 

Having known the history and Constitution of the noblest liberal and rightful 
nation of the United States of America, he, for the present, adheres to the Govern- 
ment in annexing his country, and considers that it will be for him a great honor 
to join his country as an additional star to the always vietorious flag of the United 
States of America and to count him as one of its citizens. 

Hongkong, 9th Jlay, 189S. 

(Signed) CLAUDIO LOPEZ. 

To the President of the United States of America: 

We, the subscribers, natives of the Philippine L^lands, emigrants to this colony, 
for political causes, with great consideration expose: 

Having known the history and the Constitution of the noble, liberal, and right- 
ful nation of the United States of America, for the jiresent, they adhere to the Gov- 
ernment, considering that it will be for them a great honor to join their country as 
an additional star to the always victoj-ious flag of the United States of America 
and considered them as its citizens. 

(Signed) A. H. MARTI. 

To the President of the T'nited States of North America: 

Eugenia Plona and Padillo, jirojjrietor and farmer, native of Negros Occidental 
(Vi.-;avas), Philippine Islands, and emigrant to this colony for political causes, with 
great consideration exposes: 

Having known the history and Constitution of the noblest liberal and rightful 
nation of United States, he willingly adheres to the Government in annexing his 
country, and it will be for him a great honor to be joined it as an additional star 
to the always victorious flag of the United States of North America and considered 
him as one of its citizens. 

Ilongkonir, Mnx 10. 1898. 

(Signed) ' ' EUGENIA PLONA. 



STATEMK.X'l' OK TUK ISKUilAX COXSIL AT MANILA. 33.-, 

It goes without- iniicli saying that these people, in case the Government of 
the United States shoiikl turn the islands over to the Tagalos or the Spaniards, 
would be imprisoned, executed and their estates confiscated, and that this would 
be on our part a base desertion that would justify the interference of any one 
or all of the European nations to spare and share the riches we threw away. Of 
course this. is preposterous and impossible, but that is not the way, according 
to great speakers, that a good many congressmen look at it, for they assume that 
the only "people" in the islands are the dark little men in the high grass, shoot- 
ing at the American soldiers who have destroyed Spanish dominion and bestowed 
on Aguinaldo a vicarious glory. It has been in evidence that Aguinaldo was deeply 
moved by the question of the boundary line between his forces and the American 
army, very soon after our troops occujiied ilanila. Before the American com- 
mission in Paris General Merritt testified he received letters from General Aguinaldo 
— claiming to have conquered positions and that the reply was "he mu.st withdraw 
his forces outside the limits'' that had been defined. General ilerritt goes on: 

The commission he (Aguinaldo) refers to was brought to me by General 
Anderson. He asked me if I would talk to them, and I said I would. It was a 
few days after the surrender, and I received them at my headquarters in Manila, 
and they agreed the insurgents should withdraw outside any lines I might desig- 
nate. I detailed two officers. General Greene and General MacArthur, to designate 
a line in red pencil, and give it to them on a map, and told tliem I should insist 
on the withdrawal of his troops. It took in part of the lines Aguinaldo's troops had 
occupied previous to our getting there, but it was necessary to enforce a proper 
.status between the insurgents and our own forces and to keep them out of Manila. 

Before that time, rather early after my arrival there at Manila, I had tele- 
graphed to the AVar Department of the possible trouble that might arise with the 
insurgents, and asked for instructions as to whether I should consider them as 
enemies and treat them accordingly in such case. To that request I had no reply, 
and the consequence was I had to mix diplomacy with force in order to avoid 
a tilt with them. I knew if bloodshed was once had that would be the end of an 
amicable status there, and to that end I was careful only to enforce that which was 
proper and which I conceived must be executed in order to- have my troops fully 
occupy the ground we had taken. In his letters to General Anderson he speaks 
of concessions they made there in the occupation of lines. They did. I told 
General Greene^gave him the instructions — to try to get these positions by an 
amicable arrangement if possible, but, if necessary, to report the fact to me, and 
I should use force to secure them. At the time I went there I found we had no 



3;56 STATEMENT OF THE BELOIAX CONSl'L AT MANILA. 

lines, no base upon which to approach ^laniUi. Tlie insurgents liad their pickets 
to the front of ours, and our main guard was in the rear of their main guard, and 
I gave General Greene orders to change that status, which he did, and purelj' 
by arrangement with that general of whom ilajor Bell speaks as being a verj^ 
sensible fellow and a good fellow. It appears, when the request was made of him 
he corresponded with Aguinaldo, and the latter agreed to it. 

Mr. Reid: Do you think any danger of conflict is now rea-sonably remote? 

General Merritt: I think there is no danger of conflict as long as these people 
think the United States is going to take possession there. 

Mr. Gray: Suppose, by final treaty with Spain, we should abandon Luzon 
and all the Philippines, exacting such terms and conditions and guarantees as we 
should think necessary, and abandon them entirely, reserving only a coaling station, 
]ierliaps: what do you think they would do about it? 

General ^lerritt: I think in the island of Luzon they would fight to the 
bitter end. I have talked with a number of them, intelligent men, who said their 
lives were nothing to them as compared with the freedom of the country, getting 
rid of Spanish government. 

Jlr. Davis: Do you think Spain would be able to reduce them? 

General ^krritt: Xo, sir. 

ilr. (iray: Do you think, in the event of such an abandonment, it would be 
possible for them to set up a self-government? 

(ieneral Merritt: It would take time to do it. They would have to be edu- 
cated up to it. They want a protectorate, but they do not exactly understaxid what 
that means. Their idea is that they should collect the revenues and keep them 
in their treasury, and that we should be at the expense of maintaining an army 
and a navy there for their protection, which is the kind of a protectorate they would 
like very much. 

^Ir. Frye: I suppose their idea of government is practically derived from the 
S|ianiards? 

General Merritt: Yes, sir. 

The Chairman: Wliat they desire is a government for their benefit, main- 
tained and paid for by us? 

General Merritt: Yes, sir. 

^Ir. Davis.: Do you understand that condition of slavery prevails which is 
described in that letter read? 

General ilerritt: Yes, sir: entirely as described l)y Mr. Andre. 

Mr. Gray: If .\dniiral Dewey hnd sailed away after accomplishing that naval 



STATEMENT OF THE BELGIAN CONSUL AT MANILA. :?:?: 

achievement and left this peojjle as he foiuul them, except for the destruction 
of the Spanish fleet, what, in your opijiion, would luive heen the condition of the 
island as to Sjianish supremacy and their ability to suppress the rebellion? 

General Merritt: If the Spaniards had rejilaced their fleet with another, I 
do not believe the revolutionists could have taken Manila. Along the bay it i.s 
thirty miles, seventeen by water, and the coast shows the evidences of where the 
Spaniards have used the guns of their fleets, riddled the houses with shells, and 
prevented the insurgents from approaching the town; and the insurgents would 
have been driven to approach the town from the interior, where the Spanish 
troops were concentrated against them. It was only after the destruction by Dewey 
of the fleet and his occupation of the bay that these people surrounded tlic place 
and held their positions and took possession of the waterworks, which they held 
for some two or three months. For two months, jjcrhaps three months, the water 
had been cut off from the town. 

Mr. Eeid: What is the nature of that sujiply? 

General Merritt: Very good. 



CIIAI'TKI! III. 

TIIK .MOST XOTABLE OF THK STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMIS- 
SION IX PAIJTS. 

Tlif l.'iiiiarkable I'tterancc of ^Ir. .loliii Foifiiiau. the Historian of the Philip- 
pines — His Exposures of S]}anish Tyranny and the Persecution of the Poor 
— He Credits Stories Abont tiie liimiorality of Spanish Priests and Gives 
Them — The Grievances of the Philipjiine Peasants — Extent of Spanish 
Occupation — Resources of the Islands — Habits of the Peo]ile — Their Weak- 
ness and Strength — A'ast Amount of Information and Suggestion — General 
Whittier's Persona! Oljservation — His Interview with Aguinaldo and Judg- 
ment as to the Pliilippine Riches and Possibilities. 

The statement of the higliest aiitiiority and the greatest interest before the 
American Treaty Coinmitlee at Paris \\a- that <if Mr. John Foreman, an English- 
man and author of the most valuable book on the Philippines. This gentleman 
liMd in the islands nine years, and traveled a great deal. He had an interest in 
a London firm of engineers, whose work was principally for sugar machinery and 
who did the foreign work. He stated to the Commission as to the places he had 
li\od in in tlie Pliilippines: 

"I have been practically all oxer tlie island of Luzon; several times over in 
a number of vears: 1 have been everywliere in Negros; I have been all over 
Panay: 1 have been in the island of Zchi ov Jolo, and was a guest of the Sultan. 
I have been in three-fourths of the ])laces occupied by the Spaniards in Mindanao. 
1 went on foot from Zaniboaiiga. right through the Province of Zamboanga, up 
lo Misamis on the north.'" 

In the course of his travels Mr. Foreman resolved to write a book on the 
islands, and his std)se(|uent studies intensified his interest. As to the character 
<ir tlu' inliabitants he said to the Commission, and \\e ipiote him only in that con- 
nection: The peoiile were of "the most jjlastic nature; that which can be most 
easily molded and attracted, and drawn to accommodate themselves to and accept 
a new system which might be established for their future government, would be 
{■ertainly the inhabitants of the Island of Luzon." 

The Viscaya Islands are the Panay. Negros, Cebu, Bojol, Leyte, Samar and 

ilasi ate. The entire group are calleil by the Spaniards Zolo, and they have a 

Sultan, who resides at Maybun, and as to bis jurisdiction, "the Spaniards have tried 

:?:i8 




41. Street in tlie Suburb of La Ermita. 42. Rosario Street in La Ermitn. 4.S. Luueta^Square in Manila. 
44. Hospital of San Juan de Dios. 45. Manila I'athedral. 46. Royal Street in Malate. 47. Royal Street 
in Santa Ana. 48. Monument of Don Simon do Anda y Salazar in the Malecon Square. 

VIEWS IN AND AROUND MAXIL.V. 




TYPE OF THE MESTIZ.\ WOMEN, UPPER CLASS, I'KOVINCE OF CAVITK. 



STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 341 

to reduce it to his' own island, but the inhabitants of this island of Mindanao 
give allegiance to him and acknowledge him as their chief, and also the Batnos 
tribes on the island of Palawan^ and the islands running down to the island of 
Bilbaoc." 

The people of the Zolos are Musselmen and the Spaniards speak of them as 
Moors. The Tagals (the tribe of Malays of which Agiiinaldo and Agoncillo are 
representative in blood) Mr. Foreman regards as of a very easy and willing nature, 
who '"would fall into any new system adopted," but the Viscayas are more 
uncouth, less hospitable and more averse to association with outsiders. They would 
"want a little more jiressure, have to be guided and watched, and, perhaps, a 
little more of the iron hand." In the Island of Panay, the neighborhood of Iloilo, 
are half castes, the issue of Chinese men and Viscayan women, who hold fhe trade 
so far as it is in native hands, and the same thing is noticeable at Manila. They 
are not sociable, and not the organizers, still "the cream of the civilization of the 
Isle of Panay," about the best of the islands. The Island of Negros "is a planting 
land," and the land-owners live elsewhere as a rule. Negros is the richest island 
of the archipelago for the production of sugar. There was a rapid development 
there when steam navigation was used and a governor was appointed. Mr. Fore- 
man says of him that he "was murdered because he was going to make raids into 
the interior of the island and brush it up generally, and build roads, etc., and 
as he was to do this so as to co.st nothing to the state, he seized people on the 
pretext of being criminals and on all sorts of pretexts to get large gangs of men 
to utilize them for the purpose of making these roads. Of course the most of 
them were not criminals, and they saw that they were going to have a hard time, 
and so they dispatched the governor. Another governor was selected, and when 
he heard what had been done there he did not want to go." 

As to the inhabitants of Mindanao and the Zulu group Mr. Foreman says: 
"From the beginning of the occupation of the islands by the Spaniards in 1751 
they used to make periodical piratical raids upon the other islands. They did 
not interfere with Spanish dominion, because the Spaniards had never hitherto 
pretended to trouble themselves much about the Viscayas or central group. But 
the Spaniards thought it would be an easy matter to wipe out these people in a 
little while, in an easy campaign, but they found they had opened up a hornet's 
nest. They went down to attack these people, known as the Moros, and ever 
since that time these people have made a dead set upon them. They never left 
them any peace. One time they came with their craft, known as vinitos, right 
up the Bay of Manila, though they have never touched the city, and from that 



.342 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUK (OMMISSIOX IX PARIS. 

time until }'ear before last there has been constant trouble with these people. They 
have been determined that they would not be subjected by the Spaniards at least. 

'"The last little war — and it became quite a custom, a thing understood, that 
almost every Governor-General should win an honor, a decoration, a medal, or 
something of that sort in his career by making war in Mindanao — the last war 
was known as the campaign of !Maraout in the north of ilindanao. That was 
year before last, and so it would probably have been the custom forever. They 
will not acknowledge the Spaniards; they positively refuse their dominion. The 
Spaniards kill a few and break up some of their strongholds, and then the thing 
goes on as before; they never will admit the Spaniards there. For other for- 
eigners it is very different. I know there are Germans there. 

"The Spaniards hold Zulu or Jolo town itself in Zulu Island. Frequently 
there are raids made into the town. When I was there once, just a few days before 
they had made a swoop on the town and killed two or three officers who were 
sitting outside a cafe, a drinking shop or shanty; and this used to go on all the 
time. Frequently it was so. They really do not hold on the Island of Zulu more 
than the town itself." 

On Mindanao the Spaniards have only a few posts and missions. The in- 
habitants of Luzon are so hospitable that there is no hotel on the island outside 
Manila. This hospitality is, Mr. Foreman says, an "extraordinary thing," the 
extent of which "cannot be realized by anyone who has not been there." It is the 
opinion of Mr. Foreman that Luzon is not largely populated as supposed — not 
more than a million and a quarter of people — the whole people of the archipelago 
being six million, of which five are nominal Catholics. The islands were aban- 
doned by the Spaniards for nearly fifty years after the death of Magellenes, and then 
a priest who resided in the City of Mexico pressed the matter of the annexation 
of the islands for the saving of souls upon the King very forcibly. At last the King 
gave way and orders were issued for an expedition to leave Mexico for that pur- 
pose, and the islands were ruled through Mexico — "New Spain." 

One of the most remarkable statements of Mr. Foreman was in answer to 
the question "What is the relation of the church to-day to land titles, to the 
people, and to the government?" — A. There are four orders of monks, the 
Augostinos, or Augustinian friars, the Dominican friars, the Recolletto friars, and 
the Fxanciscan friars. These are the monks who arc alleged to have usurped the 
incumbencies and are vicars of parishes. In addition to them arc the Jesuits, who 
now, for some years past, have had nothing whatever to do but to take care of 
the education of the people. There is not anything like the same animosity 
against them that there is to the others, and I am inclined to think that the people 



STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 343 

look upon them very well. They do not interfere with the personal liberty of the 
people. 

Mr. Eeid: 

Q. The morality of the Jesuits is better, also, is it not? — A. Yes, sir; it is 
very good. There is nothing to be said against them now. The head of the 
church is the archbishop. The archbishop is usually, but it is not absolutely neces- 
sary that he should be, an individual of one of these orders. The immediate chief 
of each of these orders is called a provincial. The provincial is the business man 
of the order, and these provincials are not very much subjected — they are nom- 
inally, but not very much really — to the archbishop. In fact, they sometimes, it is 
well known, have shown insolence and insubordination to the archbishop. The 
present archbishop seems to have very little hold upon them; what the provin- 
cials wanted to do they did. The case against the friars is this, and it showed itself 
in a little outbreak, called the rebellion of Cavite, in 1872. The secular clergy — 
these monks are the regular ordained clergy — claimed, under the conditions of the 
Council of Trent, that these monks, as missionaries, were not entitled to hold 
tlie incumbencies; that by a papal bull which settled this matter when it was 
raised these monks were allowed to be only missionaries, and could only open and 
establish missions, but that when these jmissions became parishes and when the 
people around them adopted the Catholic faith, they should then retire from 
these parishes and the incumbency should be taken by the secular clergy. 

Q. AVhat do you mean by '■incumV>ency'"? — A. The position occupied by the 
parish priest — the incumbency of the parish. 

Q. The titles to lands are usually in the hands of these monks? — A. Yes, sir; 
they hold large tracts. 

Q. How did they get these lands? — A. Usually they simply took possession 
— appropriated it. They have in their orders what are called "brothers." There 
are "fathers" of the orders and "brothers." "Brothers" are simply persons who 
have taken certain vows, but who are not allowed to celebrate mas.s — simply work- 
men — and they put these in charge to take possession of the land. 

Q. They took possession. Did they have no decree from the Spanish Govern- 
ment, or the Governor-General, authorizing them to take possession of the land? 
— A. Not at first. Subsequently they received decrees, but never could they get 
title deeds, owing to the opposition of the natives. The lands taken were not 
devoid of settlers, but most of them were simply squatters. 

The habit is for a tenant to hold land for three years, and when the time is 
up he has to turn over the improvements to the landlord, and the possession is 



n44 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR C0:MMISSI0N IN PARIS. 

often that of corporations, and as they are capitalized and improved, higher rents 
are required, ilr. Foreman remarks of the Spanish corporations that they "steal 
the fruits of labor." 

In the province of Laguna, Dr. Rizal was shot by the Spaniards on De- 
cember 30th, 1896, because he raised the question of land titles in his native 
town with the Dominican order, and no title deeds could be shown. One-thirtieth 
of the land that is cultivated is, however, all that the holding of the corporations 
amount to. There are not more than six estates held by foreigners not Spaniards. 
Three thousand acres would be a large estate. As to the moral character of the 
friars, Mr. Foreman says a large number of them lead loose lives and get up 
societies and persuade women to join them and become servants; and he adds there 
are "a £rreat many of the sons and daughters of priests tliroughout the islands'' 
and "there is no secret about it." 

Mr. Foreman, it will be remembered, in reply to a question from Mr. Reid, 
said, in regard to the moral standing of the Jesuit priests, that they stood well, 
and this is in the line of a great deal of evidence from the Filipinos and also from 
visitors to the islands, who join in praising Jesuits for educational labors, in- 
stancing famous schools, the observatory at Manila and its records, known all over 
the world, and the introduction of sugar making, coffee raising, and other indus- 
tries. But the same people who speak in such good terms of the Jesuits have no 
hesitation in denouncing the other orders of the church; and the grand passion of 
the insurgent Filipinos is directed toward the extermination of the friars at large — 
reserving a cooler temper for the Jesuits only, and, whilst stating that they are 
moral and of utility, pour forth the most abominable accusations about the Spanish 
members of the orders generally. Mr. Foreman, curiously enough, is no exception 
to this rule of generalization. Soon after bearing testimony that the Jesuits were 
good citizens he gave in detail incidents assuming the responsibility of personal 
knowledge of them of a scandalous nature quite startling, specifying a case at 
the house of a friend, and going on to say: 

"My friend's name is Henrj' George Brown, lie lives now at Saffron- Walden 
in Essex, England. I have known him about seventeen years, and I was staying 
at his place, on the Island of Luzon, and a letter came from "the corporation 
saying that Father So-and-So 'is going to pass through your town on his way to 
Tamina, duo north of this place, and will you please take charge of his goods 
and parcels, and see that they are sent on to Tamana?" I was there at the time 
the small steamer came in, and a drenching rain came down, and simply drenched 
the things, and Brown said that it would be a good act to open those things 



STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 345 

and dry them, and so we liad the cases opened and the things spread out to 
dry, and he called to me and said 'Just look here; is this not astonishing?' 
And he showed me some filthy prints, photographic slides for a sort of kaleidoscope 
arrangement, slides and prints of a most filthy nature. He said: 'I show you 
this because it does not seem possible that, coming in the package of a priest, 
these things could be possible.' He .said it was no business of ours, but that ho 
showed them to me for their moral effect, and I mentioned it in my book. And 
that is the man who was to take charge of the souls of the parish he was appointed 
to. That man had been turned out of the parish he had because he was so obnox- 
ious; he was simply a human beast." 

There was another case. When I first went to Manila there was quite a hub- 
bub about a certain priest called Pierre, who held a parish in Pampanga province, 
and he had beaten a boy to death, so he was taken away from there and sent farther 
north to a town called San Miguel de Mayamo. I had occasion to go to that 
town and they told me about it — it was notorious. A woman came to see him, 
and he kicked her in the abdomen and she fell down, badly hurt, and died. This 
became t6o notorious, and they removed him from there. It was talked about freely 
— what a scandal it was, etc. That was when I arrived, seventeen years ago, and 
they said, "Is it possible we are going to have these priests free from justice, and that 
they can do as they like with us?" so he was taken away and sent down to the 
province of Cavite, and there the rebels caitght him in this last rebellion, and, 
more to ridicule him than anything else, I think, they made him their bishop. 
They said, "Mind what you do. You can be our bishop and take charge of our 
clergy, but don't you attempt anything behind our backs." He thought he was 
quite safe, and he was found taking sketches and notes of their strongholds. lie 
had already made arrangements with the monks for their delivery. They caught 
him, and they said it was treachery — he had made negotiations with the Augustine 
monks in ilanila — and after proper trial he was condemned to death. He was tied 
to a post, without a hat and without water, and died of sunstroke, fever, and hunger, 
and that was his end. And no one regrets it. 

Q. How much influence on the civil government and the administration off 
the courts do these orders have? — A. The priests can not be summoned to an 
ordinary court, nor can they pursue others in court; they can not appear in court 
at all, but when a priest makes a declaration it is accepted as a fact, and no proof 
is necessary. It is quite sufficient that Father So-and-So signs it. The admin- 
istration governor may be regarded as purely and simply the executive of the 
priests, who are the ruling order there. Over and over Governors-General have 



346 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IK PARIS. 

been sent away on the recommendation of the monastic orders in recent times. At 
the end of 1892 I was in Spain, and the son of General Despujols came to visit 
me, knowing that I was well acquainted with the country, and he told me that 
his father was going out as Governor-General of the islands and he would like to 
have a chat with mo. I asked him how his father stood with the priests. He said 
he stood very well, that he would try to recognize their power and stand in har- 
mony with them, and I said that if he did that he was all right. 

General Despujols went out, and I went out there in 1893, and he had just 
left. lie had been eight months in power. Appointed for three years, at the end 
of eight months he had been obliged to clear out, from the influence of the monastic 
power. The main points against him were these: This man. Dr. Rizal, who went 
down and raised the point of the deeds, etc., with the monks, had been to Europe 
and had studied in Germany. He was a very clever man, quite an exception to 
the general rule, and had published three books against the priests — one called 
Noli me Tangere, another Filibustero, and another was a reproduction of a book 
written by a priest years ago, who was also an exception. For this he was looked 
down upon by the priests as a disturbing element. He came to Hongkong, and 
from there he was cajoled to Manila on the promise that he would not be molested. 
He went there to the Governor-General, but they detained his baggage and pre- 
tended that he carried incendiary leaflets for the purpose of raising a rebellion. 

The priests required that he should be executed, but the Governor-General 
refused to allow it; said that it was utterly impossible that he should be executed 
for what he had written, and refused. All they could get out of the Governor 
was, "Very well, you are banished to the island of Mindanao." This is the place to 
which he was banished, and where he remained for four years, Dapitan. I saw 
his little hut there on the bay, and visited him there. That displeased the priests 
very much. They had strife and (juestions between them and the Governor- 
General, and the latter said. '■I am going to see how you are working," and, all 
of a sudden, he had a raid made upon the residences of the Augustino monks 
in a place north of Manila, and had the place suddenly seized and raided, and 
it is very well known that he found a printing press printing these same incen- 
diary leaflets, and the priest who* was employed in doing so was perfectly well 
known to every one in Mailaban, to Americans and English, where there is a big 
sugar-refining establishment owned by Americans and I-lnglish, the English resi- 
dent in Manila and the Americans in Hongkong, and known personally to them. 
The man disappeared and was never seen again. I can not say where he went. 
Those leaflets were seized, and from that rannient the Governor-General was a 
condemned man, and he left. I went out in 1S93 and he was not there. 



STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 347 

Q. You regard these orders as the dominating power? — A. Yes, sir. General 
Blanco was out there in Manila, where I saw him nearly every day. He was there 
at the beginning of this insurrection in 1896. The archbishop is the most blood- 
thirsty man there. I knew him perfectly well. I used to meet the priests and 
hear what they had to say, and they said that what Blanco had done did not please 
them at all; did not suit their view of it, though, of course, I had very little to say — 
nothing to say, in fact. But their complaints were that General Blanco was not 
suthciently bloodthirsty for them, and that is the reason he went away from there. 

Mr. Foreman spoke in high terms of the climate, and Mr. Reid asked: 

Q. Are there any prevalent fevers there? — A. People do get fever, but very 
seldom. 

Q. Is it a pernicious fever, such as they have in Cuba? — A. Oh, no; very 
light, indeed; and the natives will get a fever more often than Europeans; it is 
owing to their mode of living. 

Q. Is it a malarial fever? — A. No, sir; I consider malarial fever to be that 
T\"hich comes from the opening of new grovmd. 

Q. Would it be with chills? — A. Not malarial fevers, as I understand them. 
I was once at Tera Cruz, and I saw that there was a lot of fine land back of the 
city which was not used at all, and I asked why it was not utilized, and they 
explained to me that the minute they turned the sod the people were attacked 
by the fever and dropped down with it, and died within eight hours after. I 
never knew or heard of men being troubled from the opening of new ground 
in Manila or the Philippines. 
The Chairman: 

Q. ^^^lich is the best and farthest advanced of these islands? — A. Luzon 
I consider the most advanced, owing, of course, to the close association with the 
Europeans. 

Q. More insurrections break out there. — A. Yes; and it is just because they 
are able to see other things. What they ask is perfectly just. Their insurrection 
is not from a love of quarreling or opposition to white men at all. There is no 
such thing as any hostility to white men; such a thing does not exist. • 

Q. 'What are the causes, briefly, of insurrections? — A. Very broadly speak- 
ing, the main cause is the persecution of the priests, their interference in the little 
petty details of a man's life, his wife, his daughter, the constant persecution, the 
petty revenge. These parish priests interfere in a man's own home and household, 
in the interior workings of a man's house. And all of a sudden a priest will take 
a dislike for some little thing, or nothing, and then that man is marked, and 



348 STATEMENTS BEl-OKE OIR CChMMlSSlU.N IN PAKIS. 

periodically the priest will take a piece of paper and write on it and say that he 
has reason to believe the individuals marked in the margin are — whatever he wants 
to call them — disturbers of the peace, etc., and will request that they be removed 
from his district, and the man will be taking his coffee in the morning, getting 
ready to go to his estate, and the civil guard will appear and say, "You are wanted." 
"Wliat for?" "By order of the Governor." And he is walked ofF, and if he 
shows the least disposition to dispute, his arms are tied behind him and he has to 
tramp, tramp, tramp, down, and down, and down to Manila. That is one of the 
points especially raised by Aguinaldo, that arbitrary power to arrest at any time 
simjily on the name of the Governor. 
Mr. Gray: 

Q. Has the person so arrested no chance for a judicial inquiry? — A. No, sir; 
the Governor-General has the exclusive power. 

Mr. Foreman said one of the greatest misfortunes of the people of the Philip- 
pines was there was no fair administration of justice. When a foreigner got into 
a lawsuit he might as well flee from the islands. He gives a remarkable instance: 
That in the ease of the Hongkong and Shanghai bank, which had some question 
Avith the house of Jurado & Co. The question is still on. They went to court 
over it. The bank certainly did make a mistake in wishing to close down upon 
them for certain promissory notes before they were due, but they put it on the 
ground that the promissorj' notes had been indorsed by everybody and anybody, 
even by boys back of the counter. 

"The thing cnnie into court, anil Jurado & Co. found themselves in bad shape, 
and it came out and back again, and went from civil court to criminal court, and 
sometimes one side would get the best of it and sometimes the other. The bank 
was shut up, and Mr. Townsend, the manager of the bank there, was notified 
that be must consider himself a i)ris(nu'r. The Consul protested against it, and 
he was ordered to be sent to Bombay or Calcutta as a persona non grata. He 
removed his things, and the v.bolo thing was shut up. They sent for an English- 
man who was a machinist to ))ry the locks of the safe, and he said he could not 
do it. Tie was working on it for a week, and then said he could not do it, that he 
could not possibly pry these locks, and then they got up a little syndicate of natives, 
a little banker there whose name I forget, and some others, to personate the bank, 
and they thought they would be able to make a large claim otit of it, and the last 
I heard of it the claim was for $030,000 Mexican, the claim made by this house 
of Jurado & Co., and they have kept on and can not get a settlement, and it is 
still pending. I bank myself with the bank. It has its offices in London at 31 



STATEJIEXTS P.EFOKE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 349 

Lombard street, and the brother of tliis man Jiirado is also living in London, 
I believe in Chelsea, but his office is at 21 Billeter street. 

"Q. They will never get a settlement? — A. No, sir; never. Years after this 
came up I was in Madrid, and I M-as going down by the offices of the Minister of 
War, and I met this man Jurado from London, and he said the whole thing 
would be settled in a fortnight, and that he would get his claim. I went on 
to the Minister of War, with whom I had an engagement, and he said I was a 
little late, and I told him that I had been detained by meeting this man and his 
conversation with me, and that he said the whole thing would be settled in a 
fortnight. He asked me if I would meet the nuin again, and I said that I might, 
perhaps. 'Tell him it is a lie, and that the matter is not settled yet.' " 

There was a rule that for a small tax all the people over eighteen years of 
age, men and women, had to hold a paper of identification, and one found with- 
out it had to pay the officer a brilje. Another abuse is that the countrymen have 
to give a ])eriod of fifteen days' forced labor to the Government, and the libera- 
tion of workingmen from this exaction enabled the officers to establish a system 
of Ijlackmailing the poor. There is a civil guard to keep order, and this organ- 
ization could not be dispensed with, and yet was fruitful of alnises. For example: 
An officer will send a patrol of two men to walk through the district, and generally 
to patrol it and see what is going on around there. These men, as they go along 
from hut to hut flill steal — the people are miserably poor, and it is a great thing 
for them to lose two or three chickens or a little tobacco or sugar — and they go 
al(jng and pick up anything they like. They will go to a man and say: "Where 
is your document of personal identity?" and the man is out in the field, perhaps, 
and he sa3's: "I have not got it; I left it somewhere else, at the house," and they 
arrest him at once. He says: "Let me off." "How much?" and he gets off if 
he ]'ays. They do this on their own account. They will also trump up charges 
against the natives. If an officer of tlie civil guard can not get milk delivered as 
he wants it, or sugar, or whatever else he wants, or can not get a man to run his 
horses gratis, or anything whatever he wants for his use, he will trump up a 
charge, and the man is taken oft' to the principal town of the province on some 
trumpery charge. Then they will allow a certain license in the cock fighting. 
It is supposed to be prohibited, but it is alleged that it is so set in the native 
character that it can not be eradicated, and on Sundays and certain other days 
they allow it, and the guards will go in, and if they do not get a certain percent- 
age of the bets, etc., they are down on them. They are also constantly interfering 
with the internal workings of the households among.st the natives. 



350 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IX PARIS. 

Mr. Gray: 

Q. Would the passiug into the hands of an anti-Catholic j)ower be a source 
of irritation? — A. No, sir; the matter of religion would not trouble them at all. 
The Chairman: 

Q. They submit to the present religion because it is a matter of policy to 
do so? — A. Yes, sir. 

Q. AMiat do you say as to whether or not, if it should be concluded that 
Luzon sliould be separated from the rest of the group, a government could be 
maintained there of sufficient resources in that island for the maintenance of gov- 
ernnient? In short, what would be the effect of seeking to establish a colonial 
government on the island of Luzon by itself first? — A. For the moment there 
would be a difficulty of labor. Nature is so prolific there that man can get along 
almost entirely without work. Of course in the city of Manila it is not the same, 
but the people from among whom you would draft for labor can almost live 
without work and get all they want, construct their houses entirely of wood, get 
wearing apparel to merely cover their nudity, and oan get all they want to eat 
and drink without the necessity of working. 

But I think if Luzon were kept by yourselves, they would be so startled by 
the perfect paradise it would seem to them under the Government of the United 
States that the natives of the other islands would hear of it from all sides. There 
would be steamers and canoes coming to and fro, and they would hear that they 
could walk the streets perfectly free, without being obliged to carry a piece of 
paper to show, and they would be as much astonished as was Aguinaldo when he 
found that he was on free soil and could open his mouth when he was at Hong- 
kong. It was months before he could open his mouth to speak freely concerning 
the Philippines. I think that would draw large immigration from the other islands 
to Luzon, assuming that the other islands were under Spanish dominion. Con- 
ditional on that, I think it would draw very large numbers from there, and that 
you would thus get over the labor difficulty, and the island of Luzon, being worked 
u{), would be sufficient to establish a very prosperous colony. I think it would be 
a very fine colony. 

In the course of his examination Mr. Foreman said that he thought he had 
"said enough about the priests," and, upon inquiry by Mr. Frye, said his remarks 
did not apply to the Jesuits nor to the native priests. The natives wanted to 
clear out the priests except Jesuits as educators. "In my interview at Bacoor, 
August 25th, 1898, with General Aguinaldo, I asked him, after he had said the 
Spanish priests 'should go, ought to, want to go, and had better go,' whether 



'STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 351 

what he said applied to the Jesuits, and he said, after a moment's hesitation, 'The 
Jesuits also must go." He added that the native priests were respected and not 
placed in the list of those who must be deported or destroyed." 

Mr. Foreman holds the native not capable of self-government because he has 
no "expansive ideas," and could not go so far as to understand the common 
weal. An attempt at native government would be "a fiasco altogether." The his- 
torian also gave a glancing account of the fertility of Luzon, but did not know 
of any coal good enough to depend upon in raising steam. He answered several 
searching questions in an instructive way, as follows: 
The Chairman: 

Q. You think the entire group could be taken and governed, or that Luzon 
could be taken and governed, with the free-trade regulations between the islands 
and the other stipulations you mentioned? — A. Yes, sir; either course could be 
pursued. 

Mr. Davis: 

Q. Do you think the native priests would assist in establishing and main- 
taining good government there? — A. Oh, yes; you would certainly have no oppo- 
sition from the native priests. 

Q. Would we have their active aid? — A. The native priests would not 
oppose at all; they would not take a hostile course; there would be no dilliculty 
there. 

The Chairman: , 

Q. How would they regard the Protestant missionaries? — A. I think it 
would be a matter of indifference to them. 

Q. You think the only trouble would be with the monastic orders? — A. 
From a religious point of view only; I do not think the native priests would give 
the least trouble. 

Mr. Gray: 

Q. Are these priests supported by the State? — A. Yes, sir; by the govern- 
mental funds. 

Q. Would the withdrawal of government support make trouble with them? — 
A. I do not think they could get up any trouble. 
Mr. Davis: 

Q. Would they be disposed to do so? — A. I do not think it would go past 
each individual feeling a little sore. You must remember they constitute the 
secular clergy, and the secular clergy are not bound liy any vow of poverty. They 
are very good fellows, indeed; very hospitable, and will put you uji anv time 



352 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COM:\nsSION IN PARIS. 

for a nio;ht or two. I should .-^ay that 7.5 per cent of the .secular clergy have 
(juite .sutiicient to live upon. And they have lands. 

Q. State, if you know, what the amount of aid furnished, per annum, to 
one of these .secular priests will average. — A. It is very trifling all around; I 
should say possibly $500 Mexican to each one would be a fair average; about $40 
per month. 

Q. I think yon stated in your book that about seven-tenths of the revenues 
of the island are turned over to the church. IIow is that? — A. I will read an 
extract from an article written by me which it may be interesting to you to hear: 
''The total revenues for the island, estimated, for 1896, were, in round numbers, 
86,000,000 pesetas. -If you will divide that amount by ten, it will give the 
amount in gold dollars, or $8,600,000." 
Mr. Davis: 

Q. Where do you derive that? — A. From statistics sent me from Madrid 
for the pur]ioses of my literary work. To the clergy I suppose we might call it 
an allowance made for the Government to the clergy, general allowance. 7,000,000 
pesetas out of a total of 86,000,000 pesetas. 
Mr. Gray: 

Q. Seven hundred thousand dollars? — A. Yes, sir. For the Franciscan 
College in Spain, and passages of priests from Spain to the islands, 275,000 pesetas, 
or $27,500 gold. For the maintenance of Manila Cathedral, 294,000 pesetas, or 
$29,400 gold. For the maistenance of the choir school, 20.000 pesetas, or $2,000 
gold. Total, 7,589,000 pesetas, or $758,900 gold: .<o that the net result is three- 
quarters of a million dollars gold out of a total of $8,000,000 gold. 
Mr. Davis: 

Q. About 10 per cent of the entire amount? — A. Yes, sir. Of course the 
total amount varies from year to year. Another curious item comes out of this 
total revenue which, of course, would cease to exist under new arrangements — 
pensions and allowances paid outside the colony, of absolutely no interest to the 
Philippine Islanders. I have not noted it here, but they are pensions to the 
descendants of Christopher Columbus, to a man known as the Marquis de Bade- 
niont. the maintenance of consuls in the far East, which are ab.sohitely of no 
value to the Philippine Islands. The consuls, as at Hongkong, are under the 
jurisdiction in no sense of the Governor-General of the islands; if the Governor- 
General wants to make use of them, he telegraphs to Spain and Spain telegraphs 
back to Hongkong, while, as a matter of fact, the distance is only 630 miles from 
:M;mila to Hongkong. This amount is 5,890,000 pesetas, or $589,000 gold. For 



STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 353 

public works, highways, bridges, and public buildings, nothing. Besides the above 
amounts, paid direct to the clergy, the sums extorted by the priests for marriages, 
sale of indulgences, feasts, masses, burials, baptisms, scapularies, etc., are esti- 
mated at about 10,000,000 pesetas, or $1,000,000 gold. 
Mr. Frye: 

Q. What would be the effect of stopping cockfighting and lotteries? — A. 
Lotteries you can stop at once. 

Q. There would be no trouble about that? — A. No, sir. 

Q. How about the cockfighting? — A. I think there would be cockfighting 
carried on secretly. I think it would be advisable to tolerate it. The life of these 
people is very dreary, these natives; they live in these rural districts and see 
nothing but mountains and planted lands, and if this is prohibited their vices 
will break out in some other form; they would have to have some form of amuse- 
ment. I do not think it would be practicable to absolutely suppress the cock- 
fighting. 

Q. You think the lottery could be abolished without any trouble? — A. Yes, 
sir. The natives arc so used, when they do get a prize, to having to tip so many 
people and to having so many squeezes that they get very much disgusted and say it 
is a fraud, but it is not a fraud. I believe the matter is entirely fair; but the 
base of a lottery system is about as strong as a house built of a pack of cards put 
on end. 

In 1878, when the Martines Campos treaty with Gomez was announced, Mr. 
Foreman was in Spain, and when the news of peace came the flags were flying 
and there was great Joy. Campos returned to Spain the idol of the people, and 
was wanted for Prime Minister. The King sent for Canovas, who said, "You 
had better let him go in; the higher he goes, the lower he will fall." Campos 
made it the object of his government to get Cortez to ratify the treaty, but "he 
was pooh-poohed and laughed at. They said, 'The Cubans have laid down their 
arms, everything is quiet; why should we do anything more? we have accom- 
plished what we wanted.' He said, 'I have given my word of honor; my personal 
Honor is affected.' But they said, 'Oh, you have fallen out of power, and you 
will never come in again. It is a very good trick. You have got each one to 
lay down his arms and go to his house, and now let the reforms go; never mind 
the engagement.' They have done the same with the treaty or agreement of 
Biac-na-bato, made with Emilio Aguinaldo, the rebel general. They paid, of 
course, the first installment, which had to be paid simultaneously with the e.\ile 
of Aguinaldo and the thirty-two rebel leaders, and which was deposited in the 



354 STATEMENTS BEFORE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 

Shanghai bank, but they paid no more. One of the conditions was that the 
families and others connected with the rebellion should not be molested in any 
form or sense whatever; but immediately that Aguinaldo left for Hongkong the 
priests started to persecute those left behind, and the result was that another 
chief turned up — I knew his father very well — Alejandrino. He had tied, but 
returned, and is one of the leaders now." 
Mr. Gray: 

Q. If that exodus of the friars, these priests of the monastic orders, was 
carried out, either voluntarily on their part or with some degree of compulsion 
applied to them, what disposition would be made of their holdings of land; what 
would become of the land? — A. 'What the natives, I think I may say pretty 
decidedly, would aspire to would be that the land should be declared to be the 
possession of those actually in possession as tenants to-day. holding it in rent 
.from these corporations. It is let in parcels. They would say. "the priests are 
gone, let us, as we stand, hold the land," and with very little disturbance at all 
the man in possession holds his patch of land. 

Q. They hold by a legal title now? — A. Only by a contract with the priests. 

Q. I mean the monastic orders hold by a title? — A. No, sir. That is to say, 
I draw my information from this source — that Dr. Rizal challenged the priests to 
bring forward their titles. He said, "If you will exhibit your title deeds, it will 
be satisfactory for you and for us; I shall be satisfied, my agitation will end, the 
people interested roundabout will be satisfied, and you certainly will insure to 
yourselves tranquillity by settling this matter on the exhibition of your title deeds," 
and they could not do it. They would go to the length of intriguing for three 
or four }-ears to bring about the execution of this Dr. Rizal rather than show 
their title deeds, and we can only surmise that the title deeds did not exist. 

Q. How long have they been flourishing there and holding these titles, so 
called? — A. I can not say. 

Q. It is an old business? — A. Yes, sir; very old. 

In concluding his testimony Mr. Foreman said as to raising horses, if one 
had a fine pony the Spaniards would take it unless the native rider had a permit 
in his pocket. There is a very fine wood in the Island of Mindora, twenty-two 
varieties, and in the Island of Mindanao, speaking of woods, there is known 
to be the ironwood, an extremely hard wood. It is very, very hard indeed. Of 
course, at the same time, it has the defect of being somewhat brittle, but in sub- 
stantial sizes, say in three-inch growth, it is tremendously strong. 

Q. Is there not oil in those islands? — A. Only in one place has it been 



STATEMENTS BEFOEE Orii COMMISSION IN PARIS. 355 

discovered so far; that is in the Island of Cebu, on the estate known as Calumam- 
pao, belonging to an Englishman named Pickford and a Mr. Wilson, an American. 

Earthquakes have been destructive. The cholera came to the Philippines in 
1882, and twenty Europeans and forty thousand natives died. Typhoons are not 
so serious except once in six or seven years. In the lake near Manila, Laguna 
del Bayao, there is a pretty and famous volcano known as the one of Taal, which 
was in eruption when I last heard from Manila. There is a business to Ije done 
there — the export of sulphur. At one time it was permitted, but all of a sudden 
the Government expressly prohibited it. There is another volcano there which is 
very famous, and one of the finest things to be seen, with the most perfect cone 
to be seen. In nature it is like an enormous limpet shell, and the most perfect, 
on the clean-cut style, and that is the volcano of Mayon, in the extreme east of 
the Island of Luzon, in the province of Albay. That is a very fine volcano; a 
grand sight to see it at night. Of course the whole island is supposed to be 
of volcanic origin, and when the volcanoes are in eruption you know there is no 
danger; you know that there will be no earthquakes, and they do no damage. 
Of course some of the natives are stupid enough to live in the immediate vicinity 
and occasionally get killed. 

Q. When is the rainy season? — A. The middle six months of the year; the 
first three months and the last three months is the dry season. 

Q. From April to October? — A. Yes, sir. 

Q. It is rather an uncomfortable season? — A. Yes, sir; drenching rains 
come, frightful downpours sometimes, but everything dries so quickly. 

Q. How in the other six months, from October to April? — A. Out of those 
six months four months absolutely not a drop; approaching it, it shades off. 

Q. Pleasant months? — A. Delightful. I would not choose any other jilace 
to live in the month of December. Anywhere in the islands is simply delicious; 
a most wonderful climate; altogether it is very agreeable living, a very pretty 
place. 

The well-informed historian thought if we took all of the islands the burden 
on us would be "only a little more expense of administration, which, I think, 
would be covered by the islands themselves." He concluded: 

"The name of Japan has been brought up. It is, of course, quite out of the 
question, because it is a pagan nation. The natives have been brought up as 
Christians, and I am sure it would be opposed to the popidar opinion in Europe, 
and in America, I should think. That excludes Japan, in my opinion.'' 

Commander Bradford of the United States Navy was asked by ilr. Frye: 



356 STATEMENTS BEFOEE OLE C'OMMISSIOX IX PARIS. 

"Suppose the I'nited States, in the progress of war, found the leader of the present 
Philippine rebellion an exile from his countrj" in Hongkong and sent for him and 
brought him to the islands in an American ship, and then furnished him 4,000 
or 5,000 stands of asms, and allowed him to purcliase as many more stands of 
arms in Hongkong, and accepted his aid in conquering Luzon, what kind of a 
nation, in the eyes of the world, would we appear to be to surrender Aguinaldo and 
his insurgents to Spain to be dealt with as they please? — A. AVc become respon- 
sible for everything he has done; he is our ally, and we are bound to protect him." 

This was in October, 1898. Aguinaldo is better known now. 

General Charles A. Wliittier of New York, a business man of mild knowl- 
edge and cnterjirise, and a soldier of distinction, was one of the Commis- 
sioners who arranged with the Spaniards the terms of the surrender of Manila. 
He says: "Admiral Montijo seemed to have his wits about liim better than the 
rest." The C'ai)tain-Goneral reported in trepidation that the insurgents were 
coming into the city. General Whittier made it his business to see the country 
and says: 

■"I went over the line of the only railroad in the Philippines, leaving one 
Saturday morning and going up 120 miles through the rice fields, a country of 
marvelous and most extraordinary fertility. 

"Q. Wliat sort of looking ]ieople are the insurgents? — A. They are some- 
what undersized, are fairly good in appearance, are brave, will stand any amount 
of hunger and hardship, and, well led, would be very good soldiers. The country 
on the line of railroad is divided into four parts or zones. There was one General 
Macabulus, whose luaihiuarters were at Tarlae, and it was said that Aguinaldo 
rather dreaded his ])opularity, and wanted to transfer him. There was good feeling 
between them, however, and he sent down by Higgins $36,000 as a contribution. 
This was Mexican, of course. 

"The next Sunday, in company with a member of one of tlie chief mercantile 
houses and the senior British medical officer at Hongkong, Colonel Evatt, we went 
up the Eivcr Pasig on the launch of the former. We went up about twenty-eight 
miles to the laguna. Paixanang would have been better to see, but time would 
not permit. We went to Banos, a health resort. There is a tract of land on the 
laguna on the market, held by tlie priests. They wish to sell it for $1,700,000. It 
is an enormously productive country. You pass eascos loaded with cocoauuts and 
quantities of ni])a tluitcliing for roofs. 

General Whittier quotes as his own idea Frank Swelltcuham of the British 
Straits Settlement Colony: 




f 



'] 






r 



SiLiiO 






I -_i I 1 I 



END OF LA BOCA PIER AT BEGINMNCI OF PANAMA CANAL. 






J 



V. 

cu 




STATEMENTS BEFORE OUK COMMISSION IN PAEIS. 3o\) 

"The Philippines are Malays, with more inte]lio;encc, more education, more 
courage, perhaps, than their confreres in the* Peninsula. 

"In one sense the}' would be easier to govern, because they have been for 
many years in contact with wliite men and understand their vrays. Moreover, 
the majority are not Mohammedans. 

•'But, on the other hand, they have aspirations for political institutions and 
the numagement of aifairs without the necessary experience, perhaps without the 
essential qualities to secure success. 

'T should say that our experiment in the ilalay Peninsula might be success- 
fully repeated in the Philippines, provided that the controlling power made it 
clearly understood at the start that they meant to control and not only to advise 
and educate. 

"If that point were never in doubt, and the means of enforcing authority were 
in evidence for a short time, the rest would be easy, and I firmly believe the results 
would surpass all anticipations." 

It is the opinion of General Whittier that if any sensible nation governs the 
islands a Bureau of Science should be at once established and the results would 
be great and surprising. The General had little i^rejudice against Spaniards, but 
he was convinced by contact with people in Manila ''that they are without prin- 
ciple or courage, and brutally, wickedly cruel, with no improvement on three hun- 
dred and twenty-five years ago in the days of Philip II. The bones (skulls, arms, 
legs) of their dead lie witliout the honor of a covering of earth, exposed in their 
fashionable cemetery, exhumed on account of a failure by theiv descendants to 
pay rent for the tomb. The shooting in the Luneta (their favorite driveway) of 
dozens of so-called 'rebels' and conspirators, notably Dr. Eizal, a man of literary 
merit, with no trial, vague charges of belonging to secret societies, with the ho])e 
of making their victims confess to what, in many cases, did not exist, was made 
a fete, advertised in the papers. 'There will be music,' and I have been frequently 
told that women and children attended in their carriages. The tortures inflicted 
witli the same view of eliciting confessions, are too brutal to commit the narra- 
tive to pajier. 

"I have brought from Manila for the inspection of the Commissioners four 
carvings in wood representing tortures inflicted by the Spaniards upon the natives. 
They were executed by Bonifacio Arevelo, who is now practicing as a dentist in 
Mauihi. lie is a man of tine presence, benevolent aspect, not sensational at all 
in his utterances, and in submitting them to me he wrote the wish that upon 
reaching Paris I would not forget that the Filipinos begged me to use my efforts 



3G0 STATEMENTS UKFOliE Ul K COMMISSION IN PAKIS. 

to convince all concerned of the utter impossibility of the return by them to 
Spanish domination. He also gives a .description of the models: 

"Figure No. 1. — This figure represents the chastisement which one of the 
municipal authorities of Jaen (Nueva Ecija) suffered in the prison of that town, 
the Spanish employees of the prison entertaining themselves by applying the 
most horrible tortures. 

"Figure No. 2. — This represents an honorably and peaceably inclined resi- 
dent in a village of the province of Nueva Ecija, taken prisoner, brutally treated 
for being suspected, without cause, of belonging to the Katipunan, and afterwards 
shot. 

"Figure No. 3. — This figure represents one of the many natives of the Philip- 
pines whom, during the late insurrection, the Spaniards shot without previous trial, 
in the outskirts of the village, leaving their corpses without burial. 

"Figure No. 4. — This figure represents Mr. Moses Salvador, a young Tagalo, 
who studied several years in Europe. He is a native of Manila, and was impris- 
oned in September, 1S9G, for being a Freemason, was horribly martyrized in the 
headquarters of the police, and, after many months of imprisonment, was shot 
by order of the Spanish General Polavieja in the Luneta, in company with several 
of his countrymen, all condemned on the same charge, of which several were abso- 
lutely innocent. 

"The opinion of Alexandre Dumas, Sr., in regard to the Spaniards was often 
quoted in the Philippines, that tliey possess 'honor without honesty, religion 
without morality, pride with nothing to be proud of.' 

"The rapacity, stealing, and immoralities of the priests are beyond question, 
and the bitterness of the natives against them has been caused and aggravated by 
years of iniquity. To demand a wife or daughter from a native has been a 
common occurrence. Failing to obtain acquiescence, the husband's or father's 
goods have been seized, he deported or thrown into jail, under an order easily 
obtained from the government in Manila. The priests' influence was paramount — 
they are rich, and fathers (not only of the church), despised and hated by the 
people. 

"The inefficiency, to put it mildh', of the Spaniards in war has been so clearly 
demonstrated in this war that I will call attention only to the facts in Manila 
Bay and the defenses of the town. When it was absolutely known by everyone 
there, on the last day of April, that our ships were on the way and very near, that 
night many of their naval otiicers spent in town, far from the fleet. All their ships 
were destroyed, and every man of the Anierican fleet (except one, u])on whom 



STATEMENTS BEFOEE OUK COMMISSION IN PAEIS. 361 

some heavy metal on one of onr ships fell) reported for dnty the next day. And 
yet Admiral Montijo applied to Dewey for a certificate of good conduct on that 
occasion to show to the Madrid authorities, who lately ordered him home. 

"Their inetficiency (and the creditable work of the insurgents as well) is fur- 
ther proved by the fact that they were driven by the natives from Cavite twenty 
odd miles into the defenses of Manila, with never a successful attack, never a 
capture of arms or men. All the success w'as on the native side, and yet the 
Spaniards surrendered between, 7,000 and 8,000 men, well armed, plenty of ammu- 
nition, and in good physical condition. The e.xcuse of the latter may be that their 
enemy was in small bands — but they never captured one of these — and the small 
Ijands d^ove them to their walls. Jaudenes, the acting Captain-General, in reply 
to Merritt and Dewey's notice to remove his non-combatants, acknowledged that 
the insurrectionists surrounded the city, and that he could not move women, 
children, etc., out. (His fear and solicitude about the natives entering the city 
when I received the surrender of Manila were almost painful to witness.) This 
admissiTDn demonstrates as well the military ability shown by the Filipinos, whose 
characteristics I will now enumerate. 

"Agiiinaldo went to Cavite, under the permission of Admiral Dewey, in reply 
to a telegram sent by Spencer Pratt, Esq., our Consul-General at Singapore, who 
offered that chief money for his expenses. The offer was declined. After arrival 
(on one of our ships) he went ashore, accompanied by thirteen staff officers, to 
organize his army; Init no adherents appeared the first day, and Aguinaldo, rather 
discouraged, meditated returning to Hongkong. I think Dewey advised him to 
make another effort, at the same time saying that he must leave the public build- 
ings at Cavite, where he had made his headquarters. Soon, from across the bay 
and from all sides, men gathered. The fact that Dewey permitted the armed men 
to move from the surrounding districts and for the rebels to take arms (not many, 
says the Admiral) in the arsenal was the only help we gave him, excepting, of 
course, the most important destruction of the Spanish navy. From that time the 
military operations and the conduct of the insurgents have been most creditable. 
Positions taken and the movements of troops show great ability on the part of 
some leader — I do not say it was necessarily Aguinaldo, but he gave the directions. 

'T l)elieve the natives to be brave (under good leadership), most tolerant of 
fatigue and hunger, and amenable to command and discipline, if justice and fair 
dealing rule. They are very temperate, as most of the natives of the East are. 
I have never seen a drunken one, and this with the example of our soldiers, whom 



362 STATEMENTS BEFOEE OI-R COMMTSSTOX IX PARIS. 

they imitate in evervthiiig else; very quiet, no Imul <niarrels, very good house 
servants and cooks. 

"Their skill in trades, occupations, and professions is very great. Critics will 
call this imitation, hut imitation of good things is not reprehensihle. I refer now 
to tile common people, and so will omit very able lawyers (one or two having ranked 
as the best of all nationalities in the Philippines), and the higher professions. 

'■'As accountants, they are excellent. In the custom-house sixty (more before) 
were employed during my administration. Any information desired, say the amount 
of imports and exports of last year, kind of articles, whence obtained, and where 
going, duties, etc., was sought from them, and the reply was always given in writ- 
ing in a neat, satisfactory manner. All the cash was received by a native — 
$1,0".^ 0,000, from August 22 to October 21, much of this in silver — all counterfeits 
and filled dollars were detected at once by his skill, and only $1 was returned to 
us from the banks. His neighbor, who kept the record of receipts, was most 
systematic and able. The Spaniards depended absolutely on them for the clerical 
work of the office, and the same in the other departments. 

"I visited three factories for the manufacture of cigars and cigarettes: First, 
thai of 11. J. Andrews & Co., where 150 to 200 natives were employed; second, the 
Alluimlira, whicli had 300 in April, now GOO: third, the Insular, with 2,000. The 
Tabacallera, largely owned in Paris, I was unable to see; it has 4,000. These work- 
ing people seemed to me of the best — quiet, diligent, skillful. The same qualities 
were apparent in the one cotton mill of the place, where at least 200 were em- 
ployed. 

"As mariners, quartermasters of large boats, and managers of small ones, their 
skill has been proverbial over the East for years, and we had great opportunities 
during our three weeks in the bay of proving their ability and cleverness. 

'■Jlanila straw hats have been famous for years: also ])ina cloth and jusi cloth, 
the former made of pineapple fiber and the latter madr of pineapple fiber and 
hemp. 

"The station masters and employees of the IMauila Railway compare favor- 
ably with any T have ever seen at ordinary way stations. Clean, neat, prompt, well 
disciplined, their superiority is largely due to excellence of the general manager, 
Mr. Iliggins, a man of great ability. Still the quality is in the men. The three 
servants in his house (on the line) have all learned telegTa]ihy by observation and 
imitation. 

"I have also some fine siini])les ol their eml)roidery. 

"Thev are adiiiittedlv extraordinarv musicians, and their orchestras and l)ands 



' STATEMENTS BEFOEE OUE COMMISSIOX IN PARIS. 363 

have foimd places all over the East, playing without notes with great harmony 
and sweetness. It seems to be instinct, and is all instrumental, with little or no 
vocal talent. All these accomplishments do not argue greatness, but they do show 
that they are something more than ignorant and brutal savages. I do not mean 
to ascribe to them all the virtues — they may be liars and thieves, it is a wonder they 
are not worse after the environment and example of centuries — but to my mind 
they are the best of any barbaric or uncivilized race I have ever seen, and open, 
I trust, to a wonderful development.'"' 

General Whittier visited Aguinaldo at Moloros and "found his headquarters in 
a very nice house ten minutes' drive from the railway station'" and the "president"' 
was "dressed in a smoking jacket, low-cut waistcoat and trousers, both black, large 
white tie — in fact, the evening dress common at our clubs during the summer." 
The "president was told that General Whittier woidd soon leave to go to the 
Paris Commission, and would like to be able to present to the Commission his and 
his people's views and demands and what relation they expected to hold to the 
United States in case we decided to keep the islands. 

"Aguinaldo replied, rather naively, that his people were divided into two 
parties — those in favor of absolute independence and those of an American pro- 
tectorate; that the parties are about equal; that he is waiting to see who will have 
the majority, in that case to take his position. I pointed out to him that it 
would probably be useless to try to bring those in favor of absolute independence 
to any change of opinion, but they must consider that they are without any navy 
and without capital, which is greatly needed for the development of the country; 
tliat the Philippine government alone did not possess the element of strength to 
insure the retention of the islands without the assistance of other governments. 
They would be at the mercy of half a dozen powers striving to take either a part 
or the whole of the islands, and they must consider that their greatest prosperity 
would come by the gradual accession of power under American auspices. 

"He said: 'But the civilized nations of the world would see that our po.sse.s- 
sions were not taken from us.' I replied: 'How has it been in China, where 
England, Eussia, France, Germany, etc., all strive to control territory?' To this 
he could make no reply. I further asked what that side would expect America, 
acting the role of protector, to do. He said: 'To fixrnish the navy, while the 
Filipinos held all the country and administered civil offices with its own people.' 
'And what then would America get from this?' said I. 'That would be a detail,' 
he said, 'which would be settled hereafter.' 

"I asked how far they controlled Luzon and other islands. 'Almost entirely,' 



■SU STATEMENTS BEFOKE OUR COMMISSION IX PARIS. 

he said. That the different bands, little by little, were expressing their desire to 
join him. The Igorrottos had sent in some of their leaders the day before and 
were acting with him. That he had had three representatives from Iloilo within 
a few days on the same mission. 

"We pursued all this subject of a protectorate for some time without getting 
any nearer any satisfactory result. Mr. Higgins felt that Aguinaldo had been 
simply repeating a lesson, but I did not feel so sure of that. He said that he had 
h;:d many Americans to interview him, most of them rejjorters, I fancy, and he 
had always told them the same thing. Thereupon I stated that this was quite a 
different case. 'I am ordered, as an officer of the United States Army, to proceed 
to Paris and give evidence on points which may be of vital interest to you.' After 
tliat his tone was different. Buen Camino returned, and ^Aguinaldo reported to 
him everything he had said to us. After a little talk between the two, Buen Camino 
said he, and he was sure the president, was in favor of an American protectorate, 
and seemed to approve the suggestion that we should have the nucleus of an 
army; that his people should be joined to it, filling the places of minor officers; 
and the possibility and the hope within a few years that they should fill the most 
imijortant civil and military- functions. 

"Buen Camino said I could be certain that "if a protectorate were granted 
that they would do their best to have it accepted by their people on the lines that 
I have stated, agreeing with me fully that to hold one island and giving the others 
to other powers would be most unfortunate, and not to be considered. 

"They expressed pleasure at my having come to them, feeling that they had 
been rather neglected by the Americans. 

"This I dictated hastily just after the visit, and it does not give the impres- 
sion which the interview left upon me — a great desire for our protection, for the 
improvement of their people materially and intellectually, the wish to send their 
young people to America for education. 

"Subsequently (October 31, the day I left Manila) he sent three officers to me 
with the friendliest messages, expressing the wish that I should use my best 
influence with the Com»ission in their favor. 

"ilany methods of government, with them as allies or subjects, are possible. 
I had often thought that it might be expedient at first to admit them to some 
of the minor offices in army and civil government, and if they show capacity, to 
enlarge their powers and opportunities, until finally they should have entire control, 
after proper compensation or an agreed subjection to us for our work and assist- 
ance to them. But, and I hope that I shall not be considered English mad in my 



STATEMENTS BEFOIIE OUR COMMISSION IN PARIS. 365 

deference to their practice, the result of so many years of successful colonial 
government — I am told by a governor of one of their colonies, Sir William 
McGregor, when I suggested such a course, that they have nev&f thought it safe 
or expedient, when they have a colony of so many (in this case millions) of blacks, 
and so few white men, to intrust the government to the former. If of whites, as in 
Australia, yes, after trial trust the government to them, with what are practically 
supervising, or, perhaps, honorary governors, who maintain the connection with the 
mother or controlling country. 

"It will be admitted that England has been the only successful administrator 
of colonial government in the world. Holland has had a great career, but possibly 
things are not so well with it just now in Java and Sumatra; at any rate, it is 
not comparable to England." 



CHAPTEK IV. 

RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

Memorandum of the Mineral Resources of the Islands by Dr. Becker of the United 
States Geological Survey, Gathered lor the American Treaty Commission — 
Coal, Petroleum, Gold, Co]i])er, Lead. Silver, Iron, Quicksilver, Sulphur, 
]\Iarlile, Kolin, Pearl Fisheries — Strategic Importance — Cebu and Xegros 
Islands — Xaval Stations — Harbors. 

REPORT OF DR. GEORGE F. BECKER, OF THE UNITED STATES 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, OX THE GEOLOGY AXD MIXERAL 

RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

Department of State, 
"Washington, D. C, Xovember 4, 1898. 
Sir: I have the honor to inclose, for the information of the Commission,, 
copy of a letter from the Secretary of the Interior, transmitting a copy of a 
preliminary report made by Dr. George F. Becker, of the L'nited States Geological 
Survey, in regard to the geological and mineral resources of the Philippine Islands. 
I have the honor to be, sir, your ol)e<lient servant, 

JOHX HAY. 
HOX. WILLIAM R. DAY, 

Chairman of the United States Peace Commission, Paris, France. 
(Inclosure: From Interior Dejjartment, October 29, 1898, with inclosure.) 



Department of the Interior, 
Washington, October 29, 1898. 
Sir: In ^laj-, 1898, by arrangement between the honorable the Secretary of 
War with this Department, Dr. George F. Becker, geologist, of the United States 
Geological Survey, accomj^anied the military expedition to the Philippine Islands, 
for the purpose of procuring information touching the geological and mineral 
resources of said islands. 

Dr. Becker has made a preliminary report on the subject, a copy of which, 
together with a co])y of a letter from the director of the Geological Survey, sub- 
mitting the same for my consideration, are herewith transmitted for your informa- 
tion. 

Very respectfully, C. X. BLISS, Secretary. 

The Honorable the Secretary of State. 

366 



EESOUKCES OF THE PIIILIPPINES. MT 



MEMORANDUM OX THE MIXEEAL RESOUECES OF THE PHILIP- 
PINE ISLANDS. 

. By GEORGE F. BECKER, United States Geological Survey. 

This Lrief memorandum, prepared at the request of Admiral Dewey, pro1}ably 
covers all the iiiain discoveries in the geology of the Philippines which are of 
economic interest. It is drawn up from data recorded in the Spanish Mining 
Bureau (Inspeecion de Minas), but not published, manuscript mine reports by the 
late William Ashburner, verbal information obtained in Manila, and from various 
technical publications, of Semper, Santos, Roth, Drasche, Abella, and others. 

Only about a score of the islands are known to contain deposits of valualjle 
minerals. These are arranged below in the order of their latitude to give an 
idea of their geographical distribution, and to facilitate finding the islands on the 
map. The latitude of the northern end of each is taken as that of the island. The 
character of the valuable minerals stated in the table will afford a general notion, 
of their resources. 

MINERAL-BEARING ISLANDS AND THEIR RESOURCES. 

Island. Lat. N. Character of mineral resources, 

end. 

Luzon 18° 40' Coal, gold, copper, lead, iron, sulphur, marble, kaolin. 

Catanduanes 14 8 Gold. 

Marinduque 13 34 Lead, silver. 

Mindoro 13 32 Coal, gold, copper. 

Carraray 13 21 Coal. 

Batan 13 19 Do. 

Rapu Rapu 13 15 Do. 

Masbate 12 37 Coal, copper. 

Romblon 12 37 Marble. 

Samar 12 36 Coal, gold. 

Sibuyan 12 30 Gold. 

Senerara 12 7 Coal. 

Panay 11 56 Coal, oil, gas, gold, copper, iron, mercury (?). 

Bilikan 11 43 Sulphur. 

Leyte 11 35 Coal, oil, mercury ( ?). 

Ccbu U 17 Coal, oil, gas, gold, lead, silver, iron. 

Negrcs U .. Coal. 

Bohol 10 10 Gold. 

Panaon 10 10 Do. 

Mindanao 9 50 Coal, gold, copper, platinum. 

Sulu Archipelago 6 30 Pearls. 

The distribution of each mineral or metal may now be sketched in somewhat 
greater detail. In many cases the information given in this abstract is exhaustive. 



368 EESOUECES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

so far as the available material is concerned. The coal fields of Cebu, however, have 
been studied in some detail by Mr. Abella, and in a few other instances more 
extended information has been condensed tor the present purpose. 

COAL. 

So far as is definitely known, the coal of the Philippine Islands is all of Ter- 
tiary age, and might be better characterized as a highly carbonized lignite. It is 
analogous to the Japanese coal and to that of Washington, but not to the Welsh 
or Pennsylvania coals. Such lignites usually contain considerable combined water 
(8 to 18 per cent) and bear transportation ill. They are also apt to contain much 
sulphur, as iron pyrite, rendering them subject to spontaneous combustion and 
injurious to boiler plates. Xevertheless, when pyritous seams are avoided and the 
lignite is properly handled, it forms a valuable fuel, especially for local con- 
sumption. In these islands it would appear that the native coal might supplant 
English or Australian coal for most purposes. Lignite is widely distributed in 
the archipelago; some of the seams are of excellent width, and the quality of cer- 
tain of them is high for fuel in this class. 

Coal exists in various provinces of the Island of Luzon (Abra, Camarinos, 
Batan, Sorsogon). The finest beds thus far discovered appear to be in the small 
Island of Batan, lying to the east of the southern portion of Luzon, in latitude 
13° 19'. These seams vary from 2 feet 6 inches to 1-1 feet 8 inches in thickness. 
Analyses have been made in the laboratory of the Inspeccion de Minas, and the 
mean of seven analyses gives the following composition: 

Per cent. 

Water 13.52 

Volatile matter 37.46 

Fixed Carbon 44.46 

Ash 4.56 

Sum 100.00 

One pound of this coal will convert G.25 pounds of water at 40° C. into steam 
at 100° C. The heating effect is about three-fourths of that of Cardiff coal. The 
same beds are known to exist in other small adjacent islands, Carraray and Eapu 
Rapu. A number of concessions for coal mining have also been granted on the 
main island of Luzon, just south of Batan, at the town of Bacon. Xo doubt the 
beds here are either identical or, at least, closely associated with the coal seams 
in the little islands. 

The coal field of southern Luzon is said to extend across the Strait of San Ber- 



EESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 3G9 

nardino into the northern portion of Samar. Here coal is reported at half a dozen 
localities, but I have been able to ascertain no details as to the thickness or 
quality. 

In Mindoro there are large deposits of coal in the extreme southern portion 
(Bulacao) and on the small adjacent islands of Semarara. This fuel is said to 
be similar to tliat of Batan. 

The islands of Masbate and Panay contain coal, the deposits of which thus 
far discovered do not seem of much importance. Specimens from the southwestern 
portion of Leyte, analyzed in the laboratory of the Inspeccion de Minas, are of 
remarkably high quality, but nothing definite about the deposit is known to me. 

The first discovery of coal in the archipelago was made in the island of 
Cebu in 1827. Since then lignitic beds have been found on the island at a great 
variety of points. The most important croppings are on the eastern slope, within 
some fifteen or twenty miles of the capital, also named Cebu. Though a con- 
siderable amount of coal has been extracted here the industry has not been a 
profitable one hitherto. This is at least in part due to crude methods of transpor- 
tation. It is said, however, that the seams are often badly faulted. 

At Uling, about ten miles west of the capital, the seams reach a maximum 
thickness of fifteen and one-half feet. Ten analyses of Cebu coal are at my dis- 
posal. They indicate a fuel with about two-thirds the calorific effect of CarditT coal 
and with only about -i per cent ash. Large quantities of the coal might, I suspect, 
contain a higher percentage of ash. 

The Island of Xegros is nearly parallel with Cebu and a)ipears to be of 
similar geological constitution, but it has been little explored and little of it 
seems to have been reduced to subjection by the Spaniards. There are known 
to be deposits of coal at Calatrara, on the east coast of Negros, and it is believed 
that they are of important extent. In the great island of Jlindanao coal is known 
to occur at eight different localities, but no detailed examinations of any kind 
appear to have been made. Seven of these localities are on the east coast of Min- 
danao and the adjacent small islands. They indicate the presence of lignite from 
one end of the coast to the other. The eighth locality is in the western province 
called Zamboanga, on the gulf of Sigbuguey. 

PETROLEUM. 

In the Island of Cebu petroleum has been found associated with coal at Toledo 
on the west coast, where a concession has been granted. It is also reported from 
Asturias, to the northwest of Toledo, on the same coast, and from Algeria to the 



370 EESOUliCES OF THE PHILIPrLXES. 

south. Natural gas is said to exist in the Cebu coal fields. On Panay, too, oil is 
reported at Jauiuay, in the province of Iloilo, and gas is reported from the same 
island. Petroleum highly charged willi paraffin is also found on Leyte, at a 
point about four miles from MUaba, a town on the west coast. 

GOLD. 

Gold is found in a vast number of localities in the archipelago from northern 
Luzon to central Mindanao. In most cases the gold is detrital, and found either 
in existing water courses or in stream deposits now deserted by the current. These 
last are called "aluviones"' by the Spaniards. It is said that in Mindanao some 
of the gravels are in an elevated position, and adapted to hydraulic mining. There 
are no data at hand which intimate decisively the value of any of the placers. They 
are Avashed by natives largely with cocoanut shells for pans, though the batea 
is also in use. 

In the Province of Abra, at the northern end of Luzon, there are ])lacers, and 
the gravel of the Eiver Abra is auriferous. In Lapanto there are gold-quartz veins 
as well as gravels. Gold is obtained in this Province close to the copper mines. 
In Benguet the gravels of the Eiver Agno carry gold. There is also gold in the 
Province of Bontoc and in Xueva Ecija. The most important of the auriferous 
Provinces is Camarines Xorte. Here the townships of ilamlmlao, Paracale, and 
Labo are especially well known as gold-producing localities, ilr. Drasche, a well- 
known German geologist, says that there were TOO natives at work on the rich 
quartz veins of this place at the time of his visit about twenty-five years since. 
At Paracale there are parallel quartz veins in granite, one of which is twenty feet 
in width and contains a chute in which the ore is said to assay thirty-eight ounces 
of gold per ton. One may suspect that this assay hardly represented an average 
sample. Besides the localities mentioned, many others of this province have been 
worked by the natives. 

The islands of ]\Iindoro, Catanduanes, Sibuyan, Simar, Panay, Cebu, and 
Bohol are reported to contain gold, but no exact data are accessible. 

At the south end of the small island of Panaon, which is just to the south 
of Leyte, there are gold quartz veins, one of which has been Avorked to some extent. 
It is six feet in thickness, and has yielded from $6 to $7 per ton. 

In the Island of Mindanao there are two known gold-bearing districts. One 
of these is in the Province of Surigao, where Placer and other townships show 
gravels and veins. The second district is in the Province of Misamis. Near the 
settlement of Imponan and on the Gulf of Macajalar, there are said to be many 



EESOUKCES OF THE PIIILIPPIXES. 371 

square kilometers of gravel carrying large quantities of gold with which is asso- 
ciated platinum. The product of this district was estimated some years since at 
150 ounces per month, all extracted by natives with bateas or cocoanut-shell 
dishes. 

COrPEK. 

Copper ores are reported from a great number of localities in the Philippines. 
They are said to occur in the following islands: Luzon (provinces of Lepanto, 
Bengiiet, and Camarines), Mindoro, t'apul,* ^Masbete, Panay (province of Antique), 
and Mindanao (province of Surigao). ilany of these occurrences are probably 
unimportant. The great Island of ilindanao. Ijcing practically unexplored, is full 
of possibilities; but as yet no important copper deposit is known to exist there. 
An attempt was made to work the deposit in Masbete, but no success seems to 
have been obtained. On the other hand, northern Luzon contains a copper region 
which is unquestionably valuable. The best known portion of this region lies 
about Mount Data, a peak given as 2,500 meters in height, lying in latitude 16° 53', 
longitude 120° 58' east of Greenwich or 124° 38' east of Madrid. The range of 
which data forms one peak trends due north to Cape Lacay-Lacay and forms a 
boundary for all the provinces infringing upon it. 

Data itself lies in the Province of Lepanto. Li this range copper ore has 
been smelted by the natives from time immemorial, and before Magellan discovered 
the Philippines. The process is a complicated one, based on the same principles 
as the method of smelting sulpho-salts of this metal in Europe and America. It 
consists in alternate partial roasting and reductions to '"'matte," and eventually 
to block copper. It is generally believed that this process must have been intro- 
duced from China or Japan. It is practiced only by one peculiar tribe of natives, 
the Igorrotes, who are remarkable in many ways. 

Vague reports and the routes l)y which copper smelted by natives comes to 
market indicate that there are copper mines in various portions of the Cordillera 
Central, but the only deposits which have been examined with any care are those 
at Maneanyan (about five miles west of Mount Data) and two or three other 
localities within a few miles of ^lancanyan. The deposits of Maneanyan are de- 
scribed as veins of rich ore reaching seven meters in width and arranged in groups. 
Mean assays are said to show over IG per cent of copper, mainly as tetrahedrite 
•and allied ores. The gangue is quartz. The country rock is described as a large 
quartzite lens embedded in a great mass of trachyte. An attempt has been made 

* I am unable to find this island, which probably is a very small one. 



372 KESOURCES OF THE rillLlPPIXES. 

by white men to work these deposits, but with no considerable success. The 
failure does not seem to have been due to the quality or quantity of ore found. 

LEAD AND SILVER. 

A lead mine has been partially developed near the town of Cebu, on the 
island of the same name. 

The most important deposit of argentiferous galena is said to be at Torrijos, 
on the small island of Marinduque (latitude 13° 3-1'). A metric ton, or 1,000 
kilograms, is said to contain 96 grams of silver, G grams gold, and 5C5.5 kilograms 
of lead. 

In Camarines, a province of Luzon, lead ores occur, but are worked only for 
the gold they contain. 

IRON. 

There is iron ore in abundance in Luzon, Carabello, Cebu, Panay, and doubtless 
in other islands. In Luzon it is found in the provinces of Laguna, Pampanga, 
and t'amarines Norte, but principally in Bulacan. The finest deposits are in the 
last-named province, near a small settlement named Camachin, which lies in 
latitude 15° 7' and longitttde 124° 47' east of Madrid. A small industry exists 
here, wrought iron being produced in a sort of bloomery and manufactured into 
jilowshares. The process has been described in detail, so far as I know. It would 
appear that charcoal pig iron might be produced to some advantage in this region. 
The lignites of the archijjelago are probably unsuitable for iron blast furnaces. 

QUICKSILVER. 

Rumors of the occurrence of this metal in Panay and Leyte have failed of 
verification. Accidental losses of this metal by prospectors or surveyors some- 
times lead to the reports of the discovery of deposits, and oehers are not seldom 
mistaken for impure cinnabar. 

NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES. 

Sulphur deposits abound about active and extinct volcanoes in the Philip- 
pines. In Luzon the principal suljihur deposits are in Daclan, in the Province 
of Benguet, and at Colasi, in Camarines. The finest deposit in the archipelago 
is said to be on the little Island of Biliran, which lies to the northwest of Leyte. 

^larble of fine quality occurs on the small Island of Romblon (latitude 13° 37'). 
It is much enijiloyed in churches in ^lanila for baptismal fonts and other purposes. 



EESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 373 

Marbles are also quarried at Montalban in the Province of Manila, and at Biuan- 
gonan in the Province of Marong. 

There are processions for mining kaolin at Losbanos in Lagiina Province. 

Pearl fisheries exist in the Suhi archij^clago and are said to form an impor- 
tant source of wealth. 

Manila, September 1.5, 1898. 



DATA COXCERXIXG THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: THEIR HISTORY, 
PEOPLE, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, RESOURCES, AND STRATEGIC 
IMPORTANCE. 

INTRODUCTION AND NOTES ON THE STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE OF 

THE PHILIPPINES. 

By Ensign EVERETT HAYDEN, United States Navy. 

The data herewith, selected as carefully as possible in the short time at my 
disposal, consist for the most part of quotations from authoritative sources, giving 
an outline history of the islands, their geology, geography, people, and resources. 
There is included also a copy of a special memorandum of information prepared 
for the President, by direction of the Secretary of the Navy, on the islands of 
Cebu and Negros, their mineral and other resources and availability as naval 
stations, and a compilation of data regarding coal and petroleum in the Philippines 
and vicinity, a subject of the greatest importance in connection with the present 
value and disposition as well as the future development of the i-slands. 

Jagor, the well-known German authority, made the following striking predic- 
tion in the concluding words of his work on the Philippines, published in liT3: 

'"In proportion as the navigation of the west coast of America extends the 
influence of the American element over the South Sea, the captivating, magic power 
which the great Republic exercises over the Spanish colonies will not fail to make 
itself felt also in the Philippines. The Americans are evidently destined to bring 
to a full development the germs originated by the Spaniards. As conquerors 
of modern times, they pursue their road to victory with the assistance of the 
pioneer's ax and plow, representing an age of peace and commercial prosperity in 
contrast of that by-gone and chivalrous age whose champions were upheld by the 
cross and protected by the sword. A considerable portion of Spanish America 
already belongs to the United States, and has since attained an importance which 



374 KKSOrUCKS OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

could not possibly have been anticipated either under the Spanish Government 
or during the anarchy which followed. With regard to permanence, the Spanisli 
sj'stem can not for a moment be compared with that of America. While each of 
the colonies, in order to favor a privileged class by immediate gains, exhausted 
still more the already enfeebled population of the metropolis by the withdrawal 
of the best of its ability, America, on the contrary, has attracted to itself from 
all countries the most energetic element, which, once on its soil and freed from 
all fetters, restlessly progressing, has extended its power and influence still further 
and further." 

The actual present resources of the islands are well indicated in the accom- 
panying papers, and in considering their future, under the control of one or more 
governments that develop and foster, rather than conceal and suppress, 'natural 
resources and native talent, we must bear in mind the probable vast increase in 
production, population, and commerce, accompanied by the introduction of modern 
methods and all the established improvements in transportation, communication, 
and sanitation. The commercial future oi the islands, under such new conditions, 
will be a revelation to the world, and their strategic position and features must 
become of sujireme importance in this great future field of commercial and naval 
rivalry. 

It has been pointed nut by a recent writer that the opening of the Suez Canal 
brought untold misery upon the comparatively happy and industrious ]\[alays in 
the Philippines, inasmuch as it resulted in the establishment of a Spanish line 
of steamers, bringing bureaucratic administration in place of the old paternal 
regime and awakening into renewed life and. activity the dormant curse of Spanish 
civil and military rule. It seems safe to predict, however, that with the opening 
of the Nicaragua Canal, which will put 500 miles of the Sulu Sea, from Surigao 
to Balabac, on the direct great-circle route of equatorial steam navigation around 
the earth, the dawn of a new and glorious era of prosperity will succeed the long 
night of nearly four centuries of Sjiauisli domination. 

The Philippines are very nearly as large in area as the British Isles: they are 
larger than New Zealand, and as large as Italy, with her own Sicily and Sardinia 
and French Corsica and British Alalia added. Indeed, the eastern archipelago 
may be roughly compared to beautiful, fertile, volcanic Italy, only more so. 
Imagine the plains and hills of northern Italy rent from the snowy Alps by some 
volcanic cataclysm to form a big island like Luzon, with Genoa for Manila: southern 
Italv shattered into a score of islands, large and small, ^lasliate, Samar and Leyte, 




25. Wives of Chief Datto Pian of Jolo. 20. House of Chief DatUi Pian of Jolo. 37. Barracks of the 
■Civil Guard in La Ermita. Manila. 28. View of Chief Datto Pian's Wagebon Ranche in Jolo. 29. Churrh of 
the Conception in Jolo. 30. The Weisic Barracks, Manila. 31. Entrance to the Military Hospital. Manila. 
32. Front View of the Church of the Conception, Jolo. 

VIEWS FROM THE PHILIPPINES. 




KIFT IN THE JINGLES THAT LINK THE COAST OF THE PHILIPPINES. 




ROADWAY IN liOTANU'AL GARDENS, MANILA. 



RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 3:r 

ISTegros and Sebu, Panay, Bohol; Sicily enlarged to thrice its size, like Mindanao, 
joined by a line of islets and reefs to the ijrojeeting- cape of Tunis, as the Sulii 
Islands join that island to northeast Borneo; call Corsica Jlindoro; elongate Sar- 
dinia to almost reach the African mainland, as Palawan does the northern point 
of Borneo. The inclosed Tyrrhenian Sea will then correspond to the Sulu Sea, the 
ilediterranean of the far East, through which commerce from the Pacific must 
pass on the direct route to Singapore, as it does here from Suez to Gibraltar; to 
the northward, the distant mainland (Austria, France, and Spain) will correspond 
to China, Tongking, and Siam; to the southward (Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, and' 
Morocco), to Xew Guinea, Celebe.s, Borneo, and Sumatra; and the strategic impor- 
tance of the archipelago, in peace or war, is clearly manifest. 

This great inland sea, the Sulu or Mindoro Sea, if once well charted, its 
channels lighted and buoyed, its Malay pirates suppressed, its fertile islands cul- 
tivated and their mineral wealth explored, must become the scene of an enormous 
commerce, composed not merely of the vessels of a local coasting trade, but the 
seagoing ships and steamers of every nation engaged in the Asiatic, East Indian, 
and Australasian trade. The completion of the Nicaragua Canal may result in the 
establishment of an equatorial steamship line whose vessels will circumnavigate the 
globe on schedule trips in eighty days, and the great-circle route from Brito, 
Nicaragua, to Singapore, via Honolulu and Guam Island, passes diagonally through 
500 miles of the Sulu Sea, from Surigao Strait to Balabac. 

Similarly, the shortest route from Hongkong to all Australian and New 
Zealand ports, from Tongking to New Caledonia, from the Yellow Sea to eastern 
Java, Celebes, and west Australia, and from the entire North Pacific Ocean to 
the Straits of Sunda and Singapore, is by way of the channels of the Philippine 
archipelago and its great inland sea. 

Strategically the Philippines are admirably located for commercial and naval 
operation, in peace or in war, but every consideration of ofTensive or defensive 
war, as well as the preservation of peace, seems to me to require that the entire 
group shall be the property of a single power; indeed, it were far better for that 
power to own also what is now British North Borneo, bounding the Sulu Sea to 
the southward. One might think, from a casual glance at a map, that the defense 
of this great inland sea, with its intricate channels and numerous islands, exits, 
and entrances, would be difficult if not impossible. A closer examination of a chart, 
however, shows but seven clear channels, four on the east (San Bernardino, 
Surigao, Basilan, and Sibutu) and three on the west (A''erde, Mindoro, and Balabac). 
Good harbors, timber, iron, and coal are prolific, even now when the ultimate 



:i:8 RESOFECES OE THE PHILIPPINES. 

resources of the islands are not even estimated; hemp, the best in the world, is the 
product par excellence of this region. In fact, the entire material of modern 
naval warfare is at hand, awaiting only the personnel to utilize it. Coal, the 
very life of modern commerce and naval war, is abundant in many islands of the 
group and may occur in all. The ownership of such resources, so near at hand, 
by a commercial rival and possible enemy, and the establishment close by of naval 
coaling stations and dock yards, would not tend toward the pteservatiou of peace 
or the successful finish of a prospective war. 

It is not, probably, either desirable or necessary to go into details here regard- 
ing the strategic value of the various islands, harbors, and channels, better shown 
on charts than in type, nor to discuss the relative value of each. In fact, as stated 
above, all are so intimately related that it is practically impossible to disassociate 
them in any scheme of offense or defense. 

It will bg better for the welfare of the native inhabitants, for the commercial 
interests of all nations, and for the peace of the world if the control of the 
entire group of the Philippine Islands remains permanently in the hands of the 
United States. The more one studies the subject, in the light of past history and 
the certainty of a vast future expansion of our trade with China and Australasia, 
the more convinced does he become that sovereignty over the entire group, from 
the little islands north of Luzon to the farthest coral reefs that stretch toward 
the equator from Palawan and the Sulu Islands, is essential to our future potential 
energy in the far East. 

Even the wild and unexplored Palawan, which forms a natural breakwater 
for 300 miles against the sweep of the southwest monsoon, is capable, if occupied, 
developed, and fortified during long years of peace, of becoming a formidable 
base of operations in time of war. The importance of Manila is due largely to 
its being for centuries the capital of the archipelago and the reservoir of its pro- 
ductions and supplies. Divide the group and you cut off streams of wealth that 
liel}) fill the reservoir. With a rival established at Tacloban, Iloilo, Sebu, or 
cVen Ulugan, the enormous resources of the Visaj-as and Mindanao might, and 
probably would, be diverted to build up a metropolis that would surpass Manila 
in wealth and importance. Strategically the Philippines seem, like our L'nion, 
to be "one and inseparable." 

SEBU AND NEGROS ISLANDS, PHILIPPINES: THEIR MINERAL AND 
OTHER RESOURCES AND AVAILABILITY AS NAVAL STATIONS. 

1. The inclosed data have been prepared for the President in compliance 
with the order of the Secretary of the Navy dated August 8, 1898. 



RESOUECES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 379 

2. The information has been compiled in this office, from records on file 
here, together with quotations and abstracts of information taken from books in 
The library of the Navy Department and the United States Geological Survey. In 
the latter library a large collection of books on this general subject has been 
made, and a catalogue of publications relating to the Philippines. 

3. The data herewith consist of an outline map of the Philippines, upon 
whicli the principal coal-bearing islands, so far as known, have been shaded in 
green, and quotations and abstracts from various publications relating to the 
two islands under consideration, including extracts from recent consular reports 
published by the State Department,! and cablegram from our naval attache in 
Paris. 

4. Negros and Sebu are about the center of the Philippine group, forming 
part of what are called the Bisayas or Yisayas Islands. Negros comprises about 
5,000 square miles, and Sebu about half as many. They are long, in a north- 
south direction, and narrow, and separated Ijy the Strait of Tanan. A volcanic 
mountain ridge stretches the whole length of each island, rising to a height of 
about 9,000 feet in the north of Negros. The flanks of the ridges and the low 
lands near the coasts are covered with luxuriant tropical vegetation. 

5. The principal coal deposits thus far developed occur in these two islands 
and- in Masbate and Batan,| farther north. The coal, while inferior in quality, 
makes a good steaming coal when mixed with anthracite or Cardiff coal, and 
doubtless, when the mines are developed, will prove very valuable for naval and 
commercial uses. 

6. The geological formation of the entire group seems to be like Borneo 
to the southward and Formosa to the northward, the carboniferous beds being 
broken through by volcanic peaks, their exposed edges upturned along the flanks 
of these peaks and partly covered by lava flows, etc., thence dipping under the 
limestone and coral beds near the sea. There seems to be no reason to doubt that 
the coal-bearing beds may be found upon any and all of the islands of the entire 
Philippine group, connecting the already developed mines of Borneo with those 
of Formosa. All the islands give strong indications of other mineral wealth, 
such as gold, copper, iron, lead, and precious stones. Their development hitherto 
has been haphazard and unscientific, but the results achieved are very promising. 

7. ^Yith regard to the availability of Negros and Sebu for naval stations, the 
port of Sebu, one of the oldest in the Philippines, is small, Init easily defended, 

t Omitted here. 

t A little island southeast of Luzon, lat. 13° 15' N., long. 124° 05' E. 



380 EESOUECES OF THE rillLil'i'lNES. 

and might make a useful naval aud coaling station, not equal, in any way, however, 
to lloilo, ilauila, or Subig Bay, excepting for its nearness to known coal deposits. 
It should be noted that these islands in the central portion of the group can only 
be reached through narrow straits with intricate navigation, and if light-houses 
and other aids to navigation in these straits were in the hands of another power 
than that owning these two islands, they would be more or less inaccessible, espe- 
cially in time of war. 

8. The value of Xegros and Sebu as naval stations for this country would 
be greatly lessened if various other nations established stations in other islands 
of the Philippine group. As coal is likely to occur in any of the islands, the 
tendency to establish such stations would apparently be very great, in addition to 

the agricultural and mineral wealth of tlie region. 

EVEKETT llAYDEX, 

Acting Chief Intelligence Officer. 
Office of Naval Intelligence, 

Xavy Department, August 9, 1898. 



[Coal Trade Journal. May 1, 1S95, p. 349.] 

Coal Mining in the Philippine Islands. — The coal deiJosits in the Island of 
Sebu are now being extensively developed. They are receiving the support of 
the Governiiicnt. in that they are giving ])reference to native over foreign coal. 

[Hongkong. 1S95. Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan, etc.] 

This is the cajntal of the Island of Sebu, and ranks next to lloilo among the 
ports of the Philippines. It was at one time the seat of the administration of 
revenue for tlie whole of the Yisayas, 1>ut this was removed to ilanila in 1S40. 
Sebu is a well-built town and j)ossesses fine roads, but the people are devoid of 
commercial enterprise. The trade of Sebu consists principally of hemp and sugar. 
The neighboring islands of Leytc, Mindanao, and Camiguin possess extensive hemp 
])lantations, a large proportion of the ]iroduce of which finds its way to Sebu for 
sliipment. There are some very valuable and extensive coal deposits in the Island 
of Sebu, but the mines have not as yet been worked with any enterprise. The 
trade in 1892 is represented by the following figures: Imports, $165,881; exports, 
$2,4-18,433, as compared with $2(;3,G95 and $3,638,039, respectively, in 1891. The 
iniiieijial exports of 1893 were: Sugar 17,246,442 kilograms, and hemp, 23,299,015 
kilograms. 



EESOUKCES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 381 

[Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Vol. II, p. Sl-82.] 

Sebii, or Cebu, is a long and narrow island, lying immediately to the east of 
Negros, from which it is seiDarated by a strait from five to fifteen miles wide and 
over 100 miles in length. Sebu is 130 miles long and not more than twenty 
miles broad in its widest part and contains 2,'.i75 square miles, or rather less than 
half the area of Xegros. Several chains of mountains of no great height traverse 
it from north to south, but little is known of its geology except that it produces 
gold, silver, and lead, and has no active volcanoes. Coal occurs abundantly, and 
is of fairly good cjuality: but the complete neglect of all mineral wealth by the 
Spaniards is exhil)ited here as elsewhere. The inhabitants are almost exclusively 
Biscayans, but there are said to be a few Negritos. The population has greatly 
increased of late years, owing to the great develo])ment of the sugar and abaca 
cultivation, and now numbers 518,000, but locusts and low prices have recently 
dealt as heavy a blow to Sebu as to Panay. In all these islands sugar growing will 
probably give place to hemp or some more paying crop. In 1890 only 3,000 
tons were exported, as against 11,000 tons in 1889, and while in the latter year 
thirty-four vessels — almost all of which were British — entered the port, the num- 
ber in 1890 only amounted to fourteen. 

The capital, Sebu, dignified by the title of city, is the oldest settlement in the 
Philippines, and was the seat of government until the founding of Manila. It 
was the first place of any importance visited by Magellan on his discovery of the 
grouji, and it was upon the little island of Mactan, which forms the harbor of 
Cebu, that he met with his death on the 2Tth of April, 15-21. Fifty years later 
Legaspi planned and built the city. It is pioturesquely situated and has a fine 
cathedral and several churches, but the population is not large. The island forms 
a i)rovince of itself, under the administration of a military governor. 

[Hongkong. 1895, Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan, etc.] 

The Island of Xegros is extremely fertile and contributes three-fourths of the 
sugar shipped from Iloilo, the quality of which is excellent. 

[Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Volume II, p. 80.] 

Negros lies to the southeast of Panay, from whieli it is separated by a strait 
about fifteen miles in width. It is 130 miles long and on the average about 
tliirty miles wide. Its area is 4,fi50 square miles. Its coast is comparatively 
little broken by bays or inlets, and it has no good harbors. A central chain 
of mountains runs through its entire length. For the most part these are of 



382 KESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

no height, but the Malaspina or Chalcon volcano, situated towards the northern 
end, forms an exception. Its height is estimated at 8,192 feet, and it is in a state 
of intermittent activity. Owing to the narrowness of the island, there are no 
navigaljle rivers. The inhabitants are chietly Biscayans, and number with tlie 
Negritos, from whose abundance the island received its name, about 226,000. 

The island is fertile, and produces sugar, rice, tobacco, and the textile abaca 
and pina, and in common with Sebu and Samar a large amount of cocoa. Its coal 
mines appear to be no longer worked. The capital is Bacoled, on the west coast 
opposite to Iloilo, where the "politico-military" governor resides, and there are 
mimerous large villages around the coast, though few in the interior. Hinigaran, 
the former capital, contains over 12,000 inhabitants. 

[Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Volume II, p. 34.] 

Lead occurs in Sebu, and iron ores are very abundant in Luzon and ilin- 
danao. That there are extensive coal measures in the archipelago there is little 
doubt, but they have been little exploited, and coal forms one of the largest 
imports of the group. The Compostela mine only turned out 700 tons in 1881. 
As yet no deep shafts have been driven, and what has been obtained affords very 
rapid combustion, and is not well suited for steamers. Sebu and Negros are 
especially rich in this product. Since the archipelago lies midway between the 
great coal beds of northern F.orneo and Formosa, it is probable that the mineral 
will in future be worked to great advantage. 

[British Admiralty, Eastern Archipelago, Part I, Eastern Part, 1890.] 

Xegros Island. — So called from the number of Negritos or Actas found on it 
by the Spaniards; is about 118 miles long, and, though larger than Sebu Island, 
is neither so rich nor so i)opulous. Its coast is very little broken by bays or 
inlets, and does not contain any good harbor. A central chain of mountains runs 
through it from north to south, which attains its greatest height toward the 
latter point. The rivers are but small, and unfit for the navigation of vessels 
of burden. 

The island jiroduces the best cocoa in the Hisayas, besides rice, maize, sugar, 
tobacco, cotton, and abaca (a variety of the banana plant from which Manila 
hemp is obtained). 

Note. — The Encyclopasdia Britannica says the population in 1887 was 175,000. 

[From same publication as above.] 
Sebu Island. — Sebu is an island of some im]iortaiice and interest, as its port 



KESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 383 

has been thrown open to foreign commerce. It is long and narrow, 114 miles in 
length, with a greatest width of eighteen miles in the northern part. A chain 
of mountains traverses the island through its entire length, containing beds of 
mineral coal, and, it is stated, veins of gold. The rivers are numerous but small, 
and generally unfit for either navigation or irrigation. With the exception of a 
few fine valleys, cultivation is confined mainly to the seaboard. The population 
of the island is estimated at 38,000 souls. The chief exports are sugar, oil, hemp, 
tobacco, coffee, and pina silk. The chief imports are European goods, coal, and 
rice. • , 

[Note. — The Encyclopjedia Britannica says the population in 1867 was 452,000. 
Reclus gives it as 518,000.— E. H.] 

[By Sir John Bowring, London, 1859.] 

Speaking of minerals, it is stated that gold is found in many of the islands — 
"the mountains of Caraga and Zebu are the most productive. Many Indian fami- 
lies support themselves by washing the river sands. In the time of heavy rains 
gold is found in the streets of some of the pueblos when the floods have passed." 
Iron is also found in various islands. "A coal mine is being explored in Guila 
Guila, in the Island of Zebu, on the River Manango, at a distance of about six 
miles from the town of San Xicholas, which has nearly 20,000 inhabitants, and 
is by far the largest town in the island. There are reported to be strata of coal 
from one to four feet in thickness." Various copper mines have been worked 
from time immemorial, and favorable reports sent to Europe. 

[From the American Naturalist, September, 1886. — By J. B. Steere.] 

The south end of Negros has appeared, as we passed around it, a great stretch 
of grassy plains and hills, now dry and yellow, and burned over in some places. 
The mountains approach nearer at Dumaquete, and we could see forests on their 
heights. They were volcanic, and what we judged to be ancient lava streams 
extended down from a height of two or three thousand feet to near sea level, 
and with such an even grade that they looked like gigantic railroad embank- 
ments. * * * ^Ye found it (a variety of plant known as abaca, a so-called 
mineral hemp) growing luxuriously at a height of 3,000 feet, while those varie- 
ties used for food thrived best near sea level and in the greatest heat. * * * 
Deer and wild hogs were aliundant. 

[From Travels in the Philippines.— By F. Jagor, London, 1875.] 
"Stbu, with a population of 34,(100, is the chief town of the island of the 



384 KESOUECES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

same name, the seat of government and of the bishoj) of the Biseayans, and within 
forty-eight milesf of Manihi by steamer. It is as favorably situated with regard 
to the eastern portion of the Bisayan group as Iloilo is in the western, and is 
acquiring increased importance as the emporium for its products." Among prod- 
ucts mentioned are sugar, tobacco, rice, coffee, wax, Spanish cane, and mother- 
of-pearl. "The Island of Sebu extends over seventy-five square miles. f A lofty 
mountain range traverses it from north to south, dividing the east from the 
west side, and its population is estimated at 340,000 — 1,533 to the square mile.f 
The inhabitants ai;e peaceable and dooile; thefts occur very seldom, and rob- 
beries never. Their occupations are agi'iculture, fishing, and weaving for home 
consumption. Sebu produces sugar, tobacco, maize, rice, etc., and, in the moun- 
tains, potatoes; but the rice produced does not suffice for their requirements, *^here 
being oiuy a little level land, and the deficiency is imported from Pauay. The 
island possesses considerable beds of coal the full yield of which may now be 
looked for, as the dutj" on exports was abandoned by decree of the 5th of May, 
18U9. 

According to the Mineral Review, Madrid, 18GG, the coal in Sebu is dry, 
pure, almost free of sul])hur pyrites, burns easily and with a strong flame. The 
coal of Sebu is acknowledged to be better than that of Australia and Lal)uan, 
but has not sufficient heating power to be used unmixed with other coal on long 
sea voyages. According to the catalogue of the products of the Philippines 
(JIanila, ISGC), the coal strata of Sebu have, at many places in the mountain 
range, which runs from north to south across the whole of the island, approached 
a thickness of "two miles. The coal is of middling quality, and is burned in the 
(iovernment steam works after being mixed with I'ardilV. Average price, Sebu, 
$G per ton. 

[From Oceanica. — By Elisee Reclus.. New York, 1S90.] 

The whole surface of the Philippines is essentially mountainou.s, the only 
plains that occur being the alluvial districts at the river mouths and the spaces 
left at the intersection of the ranges. Most of the surface appears to be formed 
of old rocks, especially schists, and, in the north of Luzon, granites. Extensive 
coal fields are found in the centcal islands, especially Cebu and Xegros, and in 
many jilaccs these carboniferous beds seem to have been buried under more 
recent lavas. Later limestones have also been developed by the coral builders 
round all the seaboard, and there is clear evidence that along extensive stretches 



I Evidently German miles, of which 1 {Iinear)=4% statute. 



EESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. ;585 

_of the coast line these formations liave been upheaved to a considerable height 
above sea level. They form at some points Ijroad horizontal taljles round the 
lieadlands, and here are found shells and other marine remains belonging to the 
t-anie species still living in the surrounding waters. But about the Gulf of 
Davao, in South Mindanao, the contrary movement of subsidence has taken place, 
as shown by the dead or dying forests invaded by the sea. 

The Philippines abound in minerals. The natives collect gold in the alluvia 
of all the islands, but especially in the Province of Benguet, central Luzon, and 
about the northeast point of Surigao, in Mindanao. Copper is common in the 
Lepanto hills, bordering on the same central district of Luzon, where from 
time immemorial the natives have extracted the ore and wrought it into imple- 
ments and ornaments. The blacksmiths also have at hand an excellent iron 
ore for their arms and instruments. Cebu is said to contain lead glance yielding 
nearly half of its weight in pure metal, while the solfataras of many extinct 
volcanoes have formed inexhaustible deposits of sulphur. 

[Extracts from Letters of German Captains. XV, Hansa, Vol. 21. 1884, p. 147.] 

The harbor of Zebu, capital of the Pliilii>pine island of the same name, is 
formed by a very narrow arm of the sea separating the Island of Macton from 
that of Zebu. It has a northern and a southern entrance, both very small and 
narrow, especially the northern one, where it is quite impossible to pass by a 
vessel of over 200 or 300 tons. On the other hand, there would be no difficulty 
in jiassing even a larger ship in the southern entrance. 

There are for both entrances regularly appointed government pilots, who 
are supposed to be stationed in the northeast monsoon, near the light-house at 
the northern entrance, and in the southwest monsoon, near the beacons Norma 
and Lipata, at the southern entrance. When I came from Manila and passed 
the light-house at the northern entrance about 4:30 o'clock P. M., there was no 
pilot, in sight (perhaps because it was Sunday), but as I had a good Spanish chart, 
and as the channel moreover is well indicated by buoys on both sides, I went 
on and got a pilot shortly before dark not far from the old tower Mandaui. This 
IS the narrowest place of the channel, luirdly wide enough for a larger ship lying 
at i.nchor to swing around. Although we now had the current against us, a light 
land breeze took us to a safe anchoring ])lace. In the northeast monsoon the 
anchoring place southwest of the fort is in sixteen to twenty meters depth. Ships 
are moored with chains of about si.xty meters each. There is a regular ebb and 
flood tide, but high and low water never coincide with the change of the current. 



386 RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

Besides, there seem to be, at the anchoring places of the larger ships, several , 
counter-currents (eddies), for the ships lie very uneasy, rolling from side to side, 
and hardly have the chains been made clear during the day when there is another 
half turn or round turn found in them in the morning. 

The best plan is, in case there is already a round turn in the chain, to make 
the two chains fast together, and then to give plenty of play to one chain. How 
great the strain is on a taut chain when the ship swings is shown by the fact 
that from our starboard chain, which was pretty taut, a link two inches thick 
was twisted loose and broken. If the chains had not been fastened together we 
should have lost anchor and chain. There are three wharves here, but only one 
of them, the one farthest east, is sometimes used by steamers and by sailing 
Tessels arriving with cargoes of rice and salt. For use by them there are two 
iron mooring-buoys south of the wharf (bridge). * * * 

Hard wood is good and cheap. Calking work can be done by the natives; 
forging, if not too expensive, by Chinese or natives. 

Fresh water, I am told, is paid for at the rate of $1 per barrel. We got 
all of our drinking water ourselves, partly from the well near the fort, partly from 
that near St. Nicholas Church; the latter water is the better of the two. * * * 
—A. L. 

[Copy of cablegram received August 5, 1898. from naval attache at Paris.] 

Have received reliable information that the commander-in-chief (of) the 
German squadron in China recently forwarded to Berlin, Germany, extensive 
report (of the) German engineer on mineral resources of the Philippine Islands, 
particularly coal deposits, all of which described containing considerable sulphur, 
excepting one deposit which, being free from sulphur, is necessary to the develop- 
ment of the mineral resource. I can not give name of the island containing this 
deposit. 

Note. — A later telegram from naval attach^ at Berlin states that the island above 
referred to is probably Sebu. 

COAL AND PETROLEUM IN THE PHILIPPINES AND VICINITY. 

[Encyclopaedia Britannica. 9th ed., p. 749.] 

Minerals. — Though hitherto little advantage has been taken of its existence, 
there appears to be in several of the islands a fair amount of mineral wealth. 
Two coal fields are known to exist, one beginning in Caransan in the south of 
Luzon, and probably extending southward across the Strait of San Bernardino 



KESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 387 

to Catbalongan, in Samar, and another occuiiying the western slopes of Cebu 
and the eastern slopes of Xegros, and thus probably passing under the Strait of 
Taiion. In tlie first basin there is a bed from ten to twelve feet thick cropping out 
of Gatbo, which has given good results as a fuel for steamboats; in the second 
C'enteno reports at least five beds, of varying thickness and quality. The first 
discovery of the mineral was made in Cebu in 1827. Hitherto little success has 
attended the schemes of exploitation. 

[From Encyclopeedia Britannlca, 9th ed., Coal, p. 59.] 

In the Dutch settlements, coal has been found in Sumatra and Borneo, the 
best known deposits being that at Pengaran, on the southeast of the latter island, 
where a mine has been worked by the Dutch authorities for several years. * * * 
In the British island of Labuan, off the north coa.st of Borneo, five workable 
seams, together about twenty-seven feet thick, are estimated to cover the whole 
island. 

The most important southern coal deposits, however, are those of Australia, 
which extend, with short intervals, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Bass Straits. 
In the northern districts the distribution appears to be somewhat similar to that 
seen in South America, Secondary and Tertiary basins occupying the ground near 
the sea, while true carboniferous coal is found further inland. 

[Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., under Formosa, p. 416.] 

Coal, sulphur, and petroleum are the only mineral productions of Formosa 
which are known to exist in quantities sufficient to make them of economical 
importance. The principal coal fields are in the north of the island, near Kelung 
and Tam-sui, and the coal is all shipped in Kelung Harbor: In 1873, 45,000 
tons; in 1874, 15,221 tons; in 1875, 27,GG5 tons; in 187G, 31,593 tons. 

[From the Statesman's Year-Book, 1898.] 

Gold mining is being carried on in Luzon with favorable prospects, and 
coal mining in Cebu, where, when arrangements for carriage are completed, the 
output is expected to be about 5,000 tons per month. 

Longman's Gazetteer of the World, London, 1895, says ihat coal occurs in 
Luzon, Caransan, Xegros, and Cebu. 

[Australasia, Vol. II, Guillemard. In Stanford's Compendium of Geography, London, 1894.] 
Philippine Islands (p. 35). — That there are extensive coal measures in the 



388 RESOUECES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

arcliipelago there is little doubt, but the}' have been little exploited, aud coal 
forms one of the largest imports of the group. The Compostela mine (Zebu) 
only turned out TOO Ions in 1881. As yet no deep shafts have been driven, and 
what has been obtained affords very rai)id combustion and is not well suited for 
steamers. Zebu and Xegros are especially rich in this product. Since the archi- 
pelago lies midway between the great coal beds of northern Borneo and For- 
mosa, it is probable that the mineral will in the future be worked to great 
advantage. 

Fanay (p. 79). — Gold, copper, iron, and quicksilver have been found, and 
coal in Antique, but none of these are worked. 

Xegros (p. 80). — Its coal mines appear to be no longer worked. 

Zebu (p. 81). — Coal occurs abundantly and is of fairly good cpiality, but 
the complete neglect of all mineral wealth by the Spaniards is exhibited here 
as elsewhere. 

Samar (p. 82). — Coal is found, but no atteniju has been made to investi- 
gate the minerals of the island. 

Mindanao (p. 8T). — It is probable that gold exists in tolerable quantities, 
and coal also. 

Java (p. 105). — Coal, indeed, is plentiful, liut it is jioor, occurs in thin strata, 
and hardly repays working. Sulphur is abundant, and a further exploitation of 
the mineral oils should give good results. 

(P. 138.) The mineral-oil lamps which light nearly every peasant's hut con- 
sume over 20,000,000 gallons per annum. Concessions were granted in 1890, both 
in Java and Sumatra, for the working of petroleum, and the prospects are said 
to lie very encouraging. 

Sumatra (jip. 208, 209). — The mineral wealth of Sumatra still remains for 
the most part undeveloped, although it is probable that before long the rich 
coal fields of Ombilin, which are situated toward the head waters of the Batang 
Hari, will be opened. They were discovered in 18G9, and have been estimated 
In' il. de Greve to contain 370,000,000 cubic meters. The mineral is of the 
Tertiary period, as it is probable that most of the Sumatran measures will prove 
to be. M. Forbes found coal in the Palembang district, and it exists near Malabu 
and other places in Ache. South of Fadang, at 5Ioko-moko, it is worked. * * * 
Concessions were granted in 1891 for working .some petroleum wells lately dis- 
covered . 

Borneo (pp. 219-221). — The abundance and wide distribution of coal in 



EESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 389 

the islands is remarkable. In thi^ respect Borneo is by far the richest of all the 
islands of the Malay Archipelago. Schwaner says: 

"The ocenrrence of coal is more widespread than one might be led to think 
by a first examination. In the whole of the hill formation it constitutes a most 
important and almost never-failing factor. All fissnres and openings that have 
been made nse of for the investigation of the underground geology have led to 
the discovery of coal seams, and even the banks of the great rivers disclose them 
in many places." 

.;\j5 far as is known, there is no coal of greater age than the Tertiary period. 
Most of it belongs to the Eocene, but the brown coals of the Miocene also occur 
plentifully. 

Mr. ]\Iotley, in his report on the geology of Labuan and neighborhood, gives 
the following interesting description of its peculiarities: 

"The coal, dense and perfectly carbonized as it is, yet exhibits most unequivo- 
cally its vegetable origin, and not only that, but even the kind of vegetation 
of which it has been composed is evident from the most cursory inspection of 
the heaps of coal brought out of the levels. It is clearly the product not of a 
•bed of peat produced by the decay of small vegetation, but of a mass of huge 
timber. At least one-half of the mass displays the grain and structure of wood, 
and frequently it separates naturally into the concentric layers of dicotyledonous 
wood. All the specimens I have examined have exactly the structure of the dip- 
teraceous trees now forming the bulk of the timber growing above them. The 
trees must have been of vast dimensions. I traced one trunk upward of sixty 
fett, and for the whole of that distance it was not less than eight feet wide. 

* :{; :f: '* 

It is remarkable that such an evidently recent formation should be so much 
upheaved, the coal measures of Labuan and Brunei dipping from an angle of 
24° to nearly or quite vertical, the dip being north-northwest, or about at right 
angles to the direction of -the great chain of mountains which rises nearly parallel 
to the coast. Mr. Motley's account of this coal formation would lead us to conclude 
that dense tropical forests growing on an extensive plain or river delta have been 
suddenly overthrown by flood or earthquake, or by sudden depression of the land. 
and had been covered with a deposit of clays or .sands. He well remarks on the 
quantities of trees and shrubs which in the tropics grow on the seashore, or 
even in the salt water, and thus accounts for the presence of marine shells in 
the shales, and even in the coal itself. 

(Pages 245-246.) The coal measures are practically inexhaustible, and have 



390 RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

been worked at various places in almost every part of the island, both by Europeans 
and natives. The results, however, have been almost uniformly unsuccessful, but 
this failure must be ascribed to the undeveloped state of the country and other 
causes of secondary importance, and the mines will doubtless be worked with 
remunerative results in the future. The "Julia Hermina" mine, near Banjar- 
masin, which promised well, was hardly completed when, in 1859, an insurrection 
took place, the European staff were murdered, and the works completely de- 
stroyed. The Pengoran coal mine, also in the neighborhood of Martapura, was 
commenced in 1848, but did not average a larger annual output than about 6,000 
tons, and was abandoned in 1884, as was also the neighboring Asahan mine, which 
had been working fourteen years with much the same results. A mine was also 
working in Koti, abandoned, and once more reopened in 1886. 

In Sarawak the raja opened a mine on a tributary of the SaJong River in 
1880, the prospects of which are promising, nearly 50,000 tons having been raised 
in 1886. He also purchased, two years later, a concession for the working of 
the seams at the mouth of the Brunei River. On the Island of Labuan is a mine, 
till lately abandoned, which has caused the failure of three or more companies, 
but is now being successfully worked; while in Pulo Laut, the large island at the 
southeast point of Borneo, about 5,000 tons are yearly raised by the natives and 
supplied to Dutch steamers. There is little doubt that petroleum, which has 
been found in many places, will eventually become a workable and most valuable 
product. 

Labuan (pp. 254-255). — The Island of Labuan is situated on the northwest 
coast of Borneo, opposite the mouth of Brunei Bay. * * * ^he coal mines 
are now being worked by the new Central Bornean Company, who have steamers 
running twice a month to Singapore. 

Celebes (p. 301). — Coal is found in various places in the Makassar district. 

(Page 304.) Coal of an inferior quality is found on the island. 

The Moluccas (p. 325). — Kear Batjan are some coal mines which have been 
worked intermittently, though to no great jirofit, for nearly half a century. 

Obi Group (p. 326). — Coal and lignite exist, and probably gold, but no 
explorations have been made, and the existing charts of the island arc extremely 
inaccurate. 

Ceram (p. 329). — Coal exists, but of what period does not seem clear. 

New Caledonia (p. 457). — Gold, antimony, mercury, silver, lead, copper, nickel, 
cobalt, and chrome have all been obt&ined, as well as coal of various kinds. * * * 
The coal beds are believed to occupy a very large area. Of late the Government 



RESOUKCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 39T 

has charged itself with tlieir exploration, and they are about to be worked; Ijut 
hitherto they have jjrodueed nothing for w^ant of capital and proper labor. It is 
estimated that the coal, which is said to be of good quality, can be sold at Noumea 
for as low a price as 13 shillings per ton. 

[Coal Trade Journal, May 1, 1895, p. 349.] 

Coal Mining in the Philippine Islands. — The coal deposits in the Island of 
Sebu are now being extensively developed. They are receiving the support of 
the Government in that they are giving preference to native over foreign coal. 

[Hongkong, 1895, Chronicle and Directory for China, Japan, etc.] 

Sebu. — There are some very valuable and extensive coal deposits in the 
Island of Sebu, but the mines have not as yet been worked with any enterprise. 

[British Admiralty, Eastern Archipelago, Part I, Eastern Part, 1890.] 

Seliu Island. — A chain of mountains traverse the island through its entire 
length, containing beds of mineral coal. 

[Bowring, London, 1859.] 

Cebu. — A coal mine is being explored in Ouila Guila, in the Island of Cebu,. 
on the River Manango, at a distance of about six miles from the town of San 
Nicholas, which has nearly 20,000 inhabitants, and is by far the largest town of 
the island. There are reported to be strata of coal from one to four feet in. 
thickness. 

[F. Jagor, London, 1875.] 

Sebu. — The island possesses considerable lieds of coal, the full yield of which 
may now he looked for, as the duty on exports was abandoned by decree on the 
5th of May, 1869. 

According to the Mineral Review, Madrid, 1860, the coal in Sebu is dry,. 
])ure, almost free of suljihur pyrites, burns easily and with a strong flame. The 
coal of Sebu is acknowledged to be better than that of Australia and Labuan, 
but has not sufficient heating power to be used unmixed with other coal on long 
sea voyages. According to the catalogue of the products of the Philippines 
(Manila, 186G), the coal strata of Sebu have, at many places in the mountain 
range which runs from north to south across the whole of the island, approached 
a thickness of two miles. The coal is of middling quality and is burned in the 
government steam works after being mixed with Cardiff. Average price, Sebu, 
$6 per ton. 



393 R]-:SOURCES OF THE PHILIPPIXES. 

[From Oceanica, Elisee Reclus, New York. 1890.] 

Extensive coal fields are found in the central islands, especially in Cebu and 
Xegros, and in many places these carboniferous beds seem to have been buried 
under more recent lavas. 

[Board of Trade Journal, London, May, 1S9S.] 

A disiiatch, dated Gth April last, has been received at the foreign office 
from Her Majesty's minister at The Hague, transmitting statement of the pra- 
duction of petroleum in the Dutch East Indies, according to which, in the course 
of the past year or two, there has been a considt'rabk' devcloj)niciit of this industry, 
which promises to become very extensive. The prospective market for the product 
is a very large one, for not only among the natives of the Dutch East Indies is 
petroleum pretty sure to replace to a great extent the cocoaniit oil now used for 
lighting purposes, but tlie wliole of the eastern coasts of Asia, and esiiecially China, 
will almost undoubtedly become consumers. 

The oil obtained in Sumatra is rejjortcd to be of excellent quality, with a 
higher fiasliing point and with a smaller loss in refining than the current American 
oils, while the cost of production is asserted to be materially lower than that of 
the latter. 

Among the most important enter|)rises lately brought before the Dutch public 
is the Mocara Enim concession in Sumatra. This concession appears to have been 
pitched upon by the well-known American monopoly, the Standard Oil Company, 
for tlic jnirjiose of obtaining a footing in Xethcrlands India. 

I'ropo.sils were made to and entertained by the board of the Mocara Enim 
Com|iany by representatives of the Standard Oil Company, which would have had 
the effect of bringing the first-named comjjany's operations directly under the 
control of the latter, and a general meeting of tlie shareholders of the Mocara 
Enim Comjiany was advertised to have been held in the last days of February 
last for the purpose of ratifying the proposed agreement. 

Immediately before the day fixed for the meeting, however, the board of the 
Mocara Enim Company received from the Netherlands colonial minister a cate- 
gorical declaration to the effect that the company's cqncession, which is of a 
preliminaiy nature only, would not be ratified should the comjiany be placed 
under the control of the American monster monojily. The meeting had in conse- 
quence to be postponed. 

It is understood that negotiations with the Standard Oil Company have been 




PANAMA CANAL, 3 MILES FROM THE ATLANTIC. 





PANAMA CANAL. « MILES FROM COLON. 





H 
•it. 

< 



■Si 



-t: 





EESOUECES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 395 

broken off for the present: but it is stated tliat tlie latter company had already- 
purchased a considerable interest in the Mocara Enim Company. 

Since the interference of the colonial minister the Eoyal Netherlands 
Petroleum Company, for the exploitation of petroleum wells in the East Indies, 
which is the principal undertaking of that nature in Sumatra, has also made pro- 
posals to the Mocara Enim Company with a view to a practical amalgamation. 

As yet, however, no decision has been arrived at by either company as to 
the course to be adopted, but it is thought probable that a meeting of the Mocara 
Enim Company will be held shortly. 

Cebu. — The two coal mines situated in the east coast of the Island of Cebu 
are said to yield sufficient coal to sup])ly the local demand, and the quality is 
stated to be a little inferior to Australian and better than Japanese. 

Amour Valley. — The Amour Valley and those of several of its tributaries 
are rich in coal. In the valley of the Zeya, near its confluence with the Selendja, 
is found an inferior mineral, and in the Boureya Valley almost vertical seams 
bave been proved in three or four places. In the neighborhood of Innokentieva, 
on the Amour, several lignite seams three feet thick are worked by the inhab- 
itants, and on the lower Amour a series of seams, together six and one-half feet 
thick, has been discovered. Near Vladivostok coal deposits abound, while they also . 
occur on the shores of the Japan Sea. 

Sakhalin. — Coal has been largely worked for forty years in Sakhalin, and 
at the present time attention is being especially directed to the deposits discovered 
in the immediate neighborhood of the gold mines on the shores of the Okhotsk Sea. 

[Engineering, London. August 12, 1898.] 

Gold is also found in some quantity, and there are two coal mines situated 
on the east coast of the Island of Cebu, which yield sufficient coal to supply the 
local demand, and the quality is stated to be little inferior to Australian and better 
than Japanese. 

[Advance Sheets of Consular Reports, No. 131. June 3, 1898.] 

Ambassador Hay sends from London, under date of May IS, 1898, a pamphlet, 
written by Mr. Frank Karuth, F. E. G. S., entitled A New Center of Gold 
Production, describiog conditions in the Philippines. Mr. Karuth, who is presi- 
dent of the Philippines Mineral Syndicate, Limited, says in the letter to Am- 
bassador Hay accompanying the pamphlet: 

* * * I do not know of the occurrence of true coal in the islands. The 



396 Ri:sori;cEs of the philippixes. 

beds which have been intermittently worked in the islands of Cebu and Masbate 

consist of lignite of very good quality. Some years ago large outcrops of such coal 

were found near the beach in the Island of ilasliate; but most of it, which could 

be got without mining, has been removed for the use of interinsular steamers. One 

of the syndicate's engineers, a man of experience as manager of coal mines in 

Lancashire, found Masbate coal quite useful for steamers. He calculates the 

quantity of coal available in a concession of about sixty acres at 1,200,000 tons. 

The Masbate beds are so tilted as to form an angle of 70° with the horizontal. 
* * * 

Masbate. — The coal which up to present times has been found in the Philip- 
pine Islands is not true coal, but lignite, probably of the Tertiary period, and of a 
variety which can scarcely be distinguished by the eye from true coal. There is 
no reason why true coal should not eventually be found, for it is found and worked 
in Japan, whose geological formation has much in common with that of the 
Philippines. There has been no sj'stematic search made in these islands for coal, 
and wherever it has been found it has betrayed its presence by outcrops. Thus, 
in the Island of Masbate, a local steamship owner drew his supplies from a bed 
of coal which is so tilted as to have the appearance of a vein. He supplied 
himself as long as his native laborers could get the coal with crowbars. 

ilr. Hilton, who examined this bed cursorily, estimated the available quantity 
of coal at about 600,000 tons in that particular concession. He is, however, of 
opinion that very much larger quantities are available in adjoining concessions. 
These mines are practically untouched, and, as they are situated within a few 
miles of the coast, they can be worked at a profit by whomsoever should venture 
to introduce the necessary capital. Mr. Hilton, after trying it in a local steamer, 
gives it the character of a "very good steam coal." A similar quality of lignite 
has recently been foimd in the district where the Philippines Mineral Syndicate 
is now working, and it will soon be tried for the production of steam. 

Cebu. — The only coal deposits which have been to a certain extent developed 
in the Philippine Archipelago, and of which a scientific and reliable record exists 
in the shape of a re]>ort by the chief inspector of mines, Senor Enrique Abella 
y Casariego, are those in the Island of Cebu. This report is embodied in a work 
entitled Eapida Descripcion Fisica, Geologica y Minera de la Isla de Cebu (Archi- 
pelago Filipino). * * * The coal deposits of Cebu were first examined in 
1855 by the Government mining engineer, Senor Hernandez, who, without hesi- 
tation, described the coal as "lignita" (lignite). A few )'ears later, however, 
another Government engineer, Seiior Centeno, -declared the formation in which 



EESOITECES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 397 

the coal occurs to belong to the true carljoniferous system, and proclaimed the 
discovery of a true coal field of large dimensions, the eastern rim of which cropped 
out in the Island of C'ebu, while its western rim came to the surface in the Island 
of Negros. Analysis proved Seiior Centeno to be in the wrong, for the contents 
— or carbon — of the coal of Cebu do not exceed 54 per cent, against the mini- 
mum of 75 per cent, which true coal contains. 

Seiior Abella describes the Cebu coal as lignita piciformes (pitchy lignite), 
very black, and in some instances resembling cannel coal. In carefully conducted 
official trials, best Cebu coal figured as follows in relation to good Australian and 
British coal, viz., 156 parts Cebu equal to 147 parts Australian and 121 parts 
British coal. 

The carboniferous formation extends over the greater part of the Island of 
Cebu. From Balamban and Sogod, as far as Malalmyuc and Bojoon, a distance 
of over iifty miles, there is scarcely a village that has not its show of coal out- 
crops. These have been worked on many points, and the aggregate amount of 
development is not inconsiderable. 

At one time the Government attached so much importance to the coal deposits 
in Cebu that it established a monopoly, but this was soon abandoned and the 
industry thrown open to all comers. For a time coal mining in Cebu became 
quite a rage, any number of concessions were taken up, and several companies 
established for their development. In one or two cases a considerable amount 
of capital was expended. Although faults frequently occur, large quantities of 
workable coal were found; but the absence of roads, and the necessity of invest- 
ing large sums in railways, in order to meet the competition from England, Aus- 
tralia and Japan, soon caused a reaction and j)ut a stop to the industry. The 
present annual production of Cebu does not meet one-tenth of the demand of 
Manila, where the annual consumption of coal exceeds 00,000 tons * * * j,^ 
the mines of Flung five beds have been ascertained to occur, measuring, respect- 
ively, 3 feet 8 inches, 3 feet 8 inches, 3 feet 8 inches, 5 feet 8 inches, 5 feet.* 

H: ***** t: 

[Advance Sheets of Consular Reports, No. 152, June 28, 1898.] 

On the small Island of Batan, to the southeast of Luzon, Just through the 
Straits of San Bernardino, there are extensive coal deposits, now worked by 



* Note by Mr. Karuth. — True coal has not been found as yet in the islands. All the 
coal mined in Cebu. Masbate. and elsewhere is "lignite" of very good quality, but want- 
ing the proportion of carbon which is characteristic of true coal. True coal will perhaps 
be found in the islands of Mindero and Mindanao. 



398 EESOLIJCES OF THE I'lllLlPriXES. 

Messrs. Gil Hermanos, of Yirao, Island of Catanduanes. This coal is used by 
their own steamer Josefa Gorrofio, jilying around the coast of Catanduanes, and 
occasionally coming to ilanila with hemp, and also by other local steamers. The 
mine is called Yisaya, and stocks of coal are generally on the beach. There is 
a safe anchorage for vessels close by during the northeast monsoon. In the south- 
west monsoon vessels can anchor anywhere around in smooth water. The coal is 
not equal to Japanese, but is good enough for emergency and easily obtainable. 
The mines are situated in latitude 13° 15" north, longitude 130° IG" east (meridian 
of San Fernando), ai>pro.\imately. 

Other extensive coal mines are also being worked in the village of Com- 
postela, close to the city of C'ebu. This coal is of superior quality and stocks are 
always available. 

* * * * if * * 

[China Sea Directory, London, 1889, and Supplement, 1893.] 

Northwest Coast of Borneo (p. 1-1.5). — Coal is obtained fmni mines in the 
vicinity of Muara Harbor. (Supplement, 18S)3, says: "These mines are known 
as the Brooketown collieries. The seam being worked is twenty-eight feet thick. 
There are many coal seams in the vicinity of Muara River.") The mines now being 
worked (1888) are connected by a tramway with the jiier at the vilhigc, ami are 
one mile distant from it. The coal is light, very friable, but of good quality, and 
is delivered on board for $G per ton. Quantities from 500 to 2,000 tons are kept 
in store, under cover. Two fifty-ton scliooners and a small tug are available for 
coaling vessels at the anchorage, and sixty tons can be put on board from them 
in twelve hours, the coal being taken olT in hulk and put on board in baskets. 

In February, 1888, the jjrincipal mine was on fire; but as coal seams varying 
in thickness from eighteen to twenty-five feet, running in a north by east and 
south by west direction have been found between Bruni Bluff and Pisang Mount, 
and are believed to exist from tlie town of Bruui northward to the sea, the supply 
in this district, as soon as the necessary mining skill and money are forthcoming, 
may be said to be practically inexhaustible. The annual output of the mines, 
worked with the present crude means, is 10,000^ tons, the 'depth as reached being 
eighty-five feet. About 220 Malays are employed. 

Labuan (p. 158). — A large supply of coal obtained from the coal mines at 
the north end of the island was formerly kept in store in Victoria Harbor; latterly 
about 300 tons obtained from the Muara coal mines has been usually kept in 
stock and jnit on board in baskets, either from the .jetty or from lighters, at 
$7 a ton. The attendance of lighters can nol always he de]iendcd on. 



EESOUECES OF THE PlilLlPPESiES. 390 

Toiig-King (p. 42, .supplomoiit). — Coal mines have been found a few miles 
off Mines Uiver, east of Hongai Bay or Port Courbet. A railway about four miles 
in length connects the Nagotna mine with the port jetty, and a large output was 
anticipated in 18!)1, something aj^proaching 800 tons daily. The coal is said 
to be of gdod quality. A steamer of 2,000 tons burden can lie afloat at the jetty, 
and there is a good workshop for small reisairs. 

Tong-King (p. 480).- — Several chanmls kad from Fai tsi long Bay, past 
C.'ulosse Island, 738 feet high, to Kebao, where important coal beds have been 
found similar to those at Port Courbet. 

Borneo (p. 4). — Borneo appears to be rich in minerals. In the state of 
Landak the great diamond of the rajah of Matan was found. The territory of 
Montrado, north of Laudak, has several gold mines. In Britisli Xorth Borneo 
gold, copp.er, tin, and coals have been found. In Province Dent a seam of coal 
rises to the surface and is said to be of excellent quality. 

China Sea (p. <))• — Coals can be obtained at the following ports: Sarawak, 
]\ruara Harbor, Labuan, Kudat Harbor, llanila. Port Sual, Bangkok, Saigon, 
Touron Bay, and Hoihau Bay. 

Xorthwest Luzon (p. 34?). — Coals are br^iught from Lingaycn to Sual at $18 
the ton. 

Anam, China, latitude 1(3° X., longitude 107° E. (p. 461). — At Hong Sonc, two 
days' journey to the soutliAvest of Touron, is a considerable coal mine. The coal 
obtained from it burns quickly when used by itself; its price in 1883 was 29 shillings 
the ton. 

[Eastern Archipelago, Part I. (Eastecn Part), 1890. (Britisli Admiralty).] 

Negros (p. 247). — Layers of coal have recently (1879) been discovered in this 
part of Xegros, and outcrops of coal have been found in the rivers which enter 
the sea near the towns of Calatrava and Talabe. 

[Isaac M. Elliott, ex-U. S. Consul at Manila, in Scribner's Magazine for July, 1S9S, Manila 

and the Philippines, p. 19.] 

Mindoro. — The mineral wealth of these islands is not believed to be of great 
importance, although vast regions are practically unexplored. Gold has been 
found, but not in paying quaniities. A discovery of immense value was made a 
few years ago in an accidental manner. The American ship Richard Parsons 
was wrecked on the western coast of the Island of Mindoro. Captain Joy, of 
Nantucket, Mass., and his crew were forced to cross to a port on the eastern coast 
in order to reach any vessel that could carry them to Manila. To do this they 



400 KESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

made a seventeen days' journey through the wilderness and over a range of moun- 
tains. In these mountains they came upon great ledges of coal, which are out- 
cropping, and thousands of tons had broken off and accumulated at the base of 
the cliffs. On hearing of this discovery the Spanish Government immediately 
confiscated the lands, but they have never done anything toward developing this 
great deposit of coal. All the coal now- used in the islands is imported from 
Australia. 

[Johnson's Cyclopedia, New York, 1894.] 

Japan. — Coal is largely worked on the northern coast of Kiushiu (Nagasaki, 
Karatsu), and in Yezo (Poronai). 

[W. B. Williams, President. Wm. Jamison, Secretary.] 

Hiteman Miners' Committee, 
Iliteman, Iowa, May 31, 1898. 

Dear Sir: I made suggestions to our Kepresentative in Congress (J. F. Lacey) 
that it would be to the advantage of our Government if they would send an organ- 
ized company of miners to the Philijijiine Islands to help establish and maintain 
order in those islands, and when that is done that we look after the mineral 
resources of the country. Inclosed you will find his reply, which is confidential. 
I shall now try to explain why I think it would be of benefit to us to control the 
coal mines in those islands. In the first place, the mines there have not been 
developed, for the reason that under the Spanish only they were taxed so that it 
Avas impossible to successfully work them. 

In Caransan there is quite a coal basin — this is south of ilanila — r.nd in the 
upper part of the Island of Luzon* fliere are several veins of coal, which is of 
good quality: in some respects it is superior to the coal from Vancouver. Now, 
if we hold those islands and this mineral exists there, I think it would certainly 
show bad management on the part of our Government if we neglected to make use 
of it. And if we could supply coal for our vessels in the Indian Ocean from the 
coal mines in the Philippines it would be a great saving to the Government and 
also be an incentive to enterprise and industry. Now, Mr. Curtis, from reading 
your letters in the Record for the past four years, I know you are in a position 
so that you can call the attention of the proper authorities to the suggestions which 
I advance, and if I have the sanction of the authorities, I can organize a com- 
plete company of miners, from mining engineers to mule drivers, and all of the 
skilled labor needed around a coal mine, and if it is not too much trouble I wish 



*Probably the mines near Lingayen are meant. — E. H. 



RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 401 

you would call some of the officials' attention to this matter. I am no father's 
son, Ijut I am an American. 

Respectfully, yours, WM. JAMISON. 

WILLIAM E. CURTIS, 
Chicago Record. 

Hiteman, Iowa, September 1, 1898. 
R. B. Bradford, Washington, D. C. 

Dear Sir: My information in regard to coal in the Philippines has been 
gained by intimate acquaintance with a Swede miner named Swanson, who had 
worked for some English company in their mines north of Manila. He left here 
some five weeks since, and said he was going back to the islands if he could 
possibly get there. 

Respectfully, yours, Wil. JAJIISON. 

[Copy of ciphei- cablegram received August 5, 1898, from naval attache at Paris.] 

Have received reliable information that the commander-in-chief (of) the 
German squadron in China recently forwarded to Berlin, Germany, extensive 
report (of the) German engineer on mineral resources of the Philippine Islands, 
particularly coal deposits, all of which described containing considerable sulphur, 
e.xcepting one deposit, which being free from sulphur is necessary to the develop- 
ment of the mineral resources. I can not give name of the island containing this 
deposit. 

NOTE — A later telegram from naval attache at Berlin states that the island above 
referred to is probably Sebu. 

[By R. von Drasche. published in Proceedings of the Royal Geological Service, Vienna, 
Austria, March 7, 1S76, p. 251.] 

Reference to coal mines of Bakon, in the extreme southeast of the Island of 
Luzon; no details given. 

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

[Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia (1895). — Article revised by C. C. Adams.] 

A group of over -100 islands, extending across 16 degrees of latitude, between 
Formosa and the Muluccas, and forming the northern part of the Malay Archi- 
pelago. The largest are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Mindoro, Panay, Leyte, Negros, 
Masbate, and Sebu. The total area is estimated at 114,.336 square miles, all under 
Spanish rule and divided into forty-three provinces. Population about 7,000,000. 
The Philippine I.«lands are of volcanic origin. Active volcanoes are found through- 



•iOi! RESOUECES OF THE PIIlLirPINES. 

out the whole group, such as Ma3-on iu Luzon and Buhayan in Mindanao, and 
earthquakes are frequent and often violent. In 18G3 Manila, the capital of Luzon, 
was nearly destroyed, and in ISGl the whole province of Zamboanga, in Mindanao, 
was fearfully devastated. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and, as water is abundant, 
both in lakes and rivers, and the climate is hot and moisl, vegetable life reaches 
here an almost gigantic development. 

The mountains, rising to a height of 7,000 feet, are covered to their very tops 
with forests of immense trees, yielding excellent timber and many of the most 
valuable sorts of wood. Teak, ebony, cedar, and gum trees, iron and sapan wood 
are interspersed with breadfruit and cocoanut trees, oranges, citrons, mango, tama- 
rinds, and other varieties of fruit trees, the whole bound together with floating 
garlands of huge climbing plants and brilliant parasites. On the extensive slopes 
and in the valleys are cultivated abaca, or hemp, of which about 65,000 tons are 
annually exported. In 1890 8,000 tons of tobacco and 110,000,000 cigars were 
exported. The other products are cotton, sugar, coffee, indigo, rice, wheat, maize, 
pepper, ginger, vanilla, cinnamon, cocoa, etc. Of dangerous wild beasts there are 
none; oxen, buffaloes, horses, goats, sheep, and swine of peculiar but excellent breeds 
are extensively reared; deer, wild boars, pheasants, ducks, and fine fisli are abun- 
dant; the forests swarm with monkeys, squirrels, parrots, sunbirds, and bees; the 
jungles with lizards, snakes, tarantulas, mosquitoes, and other insects. Gold is- 
found, also iron, copper, coal, vermilion, saltpeter, quicksilver, sulphur (in large 
quantities both i)ure and mixed with copper or iron) mother-of-pearl, coral, amber, 
and tortoise shell. 

The Philippine Islands were discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who died here . 
in the same year, and a few years later the Spaniards, under Villalobos, took pos- 
session of the groiij) and named it in honor of King Philij) II. of Spain. The 
inhabitants consist partly of Negritos, who have woolly hair and other character- 
istics of the negro, and seemed to have formed the aboriginal population. They 
live in the interior, are repulsive and savage in aspect, and roam in bands. There 
are only a few thousand ])ure-blood Xegritos left, as they have long been in process 
of extermination by the Malay immigrants, or of absorption through cross-breeding 
with other peoples. The Malays are in a large part Roman Catholics, settled in 
villages, and engaged in agriculture and fishing. They possess many fine branches 
of industry, as, for instance, their beautiful mats and their elegant linen fabrics, 
and they imitate European industry, shipbuilding, leather dressing, carriage build- 
ing, etc., with great success. TKe Chinese and the mestizos, descended from Chinese 
fathers and native mothers, are mostly engaged in commerce. Very few Spaniards 



RESOrKCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. iOii 

reside in the islands, but the Chinese are verj- numerous, and uatrves of the 
Mahiyan race form tlie vast majority of the pojiuhition. 

ABSTRACT OF ARTICLE OX PHTLIPPIXE ISLANDS. 
[In Longman's Gazetteer of the World, London, 1S95.] 

Minerals: Gold (Luzon, Benguer, Yicols, Mindanao, ilisamis, Surigao); 
galena (50 j)er cent pure); copper (arsenical pj'rites, l(i per cent pure copper, Luzon, 
Lepauto, Caniarines, Masbate, Panay); coal (Luzon, Cavansan [Carausan?], Negros, 
C'ebu); suljihur (Leyte). 

Products: Hemp, sugar, tobacco (only cultivated in all tlie Philippines since 
1882), coffee (principally since 1880), woods, rice, some cacao, cotton. Only one- 
fifth of the islands are under cultivation. 

Industries: Making cigars, abaca tissues, straw hats, perfumes, sugar 
(£2,500,000 exported). 

Imports: Food, dress materials, fuel, arms, machinery, and iron. 

Commerce: Greatest with England, then United States, Spain, and Germany. 

Exports and imports: 1891, £10,000,000; 1892, £12,500,000. 

Railroad: Manila to Dagupan, seventy miles. 

Telegraph: Seven hundred and tv.enty miles; also cable to Hongkong. 

THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
[From Engineering. London, August 12, 1S9S.] 

The present state of affairs in the Philippine Islands naturally directs atten- 
tion to the condition of their trade and causes speculation to be made regarding 
its future. A glance at the map shows that their geographical, and therefore 
their jiolitical, position is very important. They, along with Borneo, form the 
eastern shores of the South China Sea, which are therefore one-half Spanish 
and one-half British, while the British Malay Peninsula and French Cochin China 
form the western shores, with Hongkong, our chief far Eastern possession, at the 
head of this narrow storm-tossed sea. Not only do they form an important 
station in the far Eastern seas, and a step to the vast population of China, but 
their great natural resources cause them to be a most desirable possession; so 
that from various points of view it is of the utmost importance that they should 
not fall into the hands of any foreign power except America or Britain, either 
of which would not onjy develop their natural resources, but also use them for 



40^ RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 

the purpose of maintaining an "open door" for the commerce of all countries 
with the "far East. 

The Germans are beginning to express the opinion that they do not possess 
their legitimate share of the world, and to insist that in any new partition of any 
part of the earth they should get their fair share. They are supposed to have 
cast longing eyes on the I'liilippines, l)ut they are not likely to interfere by force, 
for they know that such a step would immediately open up a very large question, 
and nothing has happened in connection with the recent events which gives them 
any grounds for diplomatic intervention, which the I'nited States would be certain 
to resent. 

It is, indeed, probable that the real difficulties of the United States will only 
begin when they have made peace with Spain. If we are to judge from the 
opinions expressed in the American journals, the future government of the Philip- 
pines is very uncertain. The Xew England press, as a whole, is decidedly opposed 
to the permanent holding of the islands. It is pointed out that under the Con- 
stitution there is no machinery for the government of 8,000,000 or 10,000,000 
of peoi)le who could not be admitted to citizenship. Moreover, the possession of 
the islands would rend the Monroe doctrine from top to bottom, and would tell 
very much against the United States in any difficulty with a foreign power. 

On the other hand, some influential journals favor annexation and main- 
tain that the time has come when America must abandon her isolation and join 
in the universal search for markets and footholds in distant parts of the world. 
They maintain that the possession of the Philippines woidd support an Asiatic 
fleet and give the United States a better position among the nations of the world, 
not only by increasing their commerce in the far East, but generally by enabling 
them to take that place among nations which the wealth, population, and mental 
resources of the country entitle it to. The Pacific coast papers are specially eager 
in the matter, and insist that with an important station in the far East, San 
Francisco and the Pacific coast as a whole would become, in time, nearly as impor- 
tant as is the East now. American merchants and manufacturers, under the pro- 
tection of the Stars and Stripes, woidd develop the riches of the islands and create 
an immense field for commercial enterprise. Those journals not in favor of 
annexation are of oi)ini(in that the island should be transferred to England or 
Japan, whose interests are essentially the same as those of the United States. Such 
a step, however, would at once raise the opposition of Russia, and, probably, also 
of Germany and France. The well-known Russian journal, the Xovoe Vremya, 
had the following remarks on the subject: 



KESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. 405 

'It looks as if tlie settlement of the question of the fate of the Philippine 
Islands will be prolonged for some time to come, since all the powers that have 
anj' use of their hands take a keen interest in this ripe and tempting bunch of 
grapes. The future fate of the Philippines can be assumed in the following 
manner: Firstly, the United States can rest content with Cuba, and leave the 
Philippines to Spain; secondl}', Spain may retain the Phili])pines, but under the 
guaranty of the United States the necessary reforms shall be introduced into 
the islands; thirdly, the Philippines might be given up by Spain, and then estab- 
lish a more or less independent republic under the protection of the United States; 
and, fourthly, the Philippines can be annexed by the United States on the ground 
of enjoyment of the rights of a separate State. The last solution of the question 
seems to us the least likely to be carried into effect if one takes into consideration 
the distance of the islands from the American continent, the general predilection 
on the part of Americans to observe the Jlonroe doctrine, and the numerous popula- 
tion of the islands; this population can scarcely be expected to allow themselves 
to be turned into American citizens without a struggle." 

Whatever solution is arrived at, the writer thinks it desirable that Eussia 
should have a coaling station in the Philippines. As the war between Japan 
and China started a great many important questions, so in like manner is that 
between the United States and Spain certain to raise some new factors in the 
complex game which is being played in the far East. 

The rebels against Spain in the Philippines evidently mean to insist on a 
republic under the protection of the United States, an arrangement which they 
say will not disturb the balance of influence in the far East, and they promise 
to respect and protect the interest of all powers. They remember, they say, that 
the Japanese are their kinsmen; that England is the great nation that commands 
75 per cent of their import trade, and whose capital "is invested to so large an 
extent in their undertakings; that America is their principal market for the export 
of sugar and hemp; that Germany and France are now opening up considerable 
trade, and that Russia, Austria, and Italy have no business connections in the 
islands. 

The principal articles imported into the islands include: From Spain, printed 
cotton cambrics, colored yarns, gunny bags, hats, umbrellas, leather goods, most 
of the wine, comestibles, etc., lentils, pulse, beans and beer; from the United 
Kingdom goods made of fine yarns, such as muslins, etc., printed jaconets, corru- 
gated and sheet iron for roofing, cast-iron and yellow-metal goods, earthenware, 
tinned provisions, ham, bacon, and flour; from Germany, hardware and galvanized 



4UG liESOUECES OF TIIK PlllLIPPIXES. 

and enameled iron goods, cutlery, paints and oils, and beer: from the United 
. tates, iJracticallv all the flour consumed on the Manila market. The protective 
tariff, which came into force in 1891, has caused a large and steadily increasing 
quantity of the trade in cotton goods and yarns to be diverted from the United 
Kingdom to Barcelona, and has also put a stop, practically, to the import of 
linen goods. Gunny bags, which used to be imported from Calcutta, come now 
almost exclusively from Barcelona, and Spain likewise provides the greater part 
of the comestibles, wine, etc., for the same reason. The staple products and prin- 
cipal articles of export from the Philippines are tobacco (leaf and cigars), sugar, 
hemp, and copra; and of minor importance, coffee, sapan wood, and buffalo hides. 

There is a -large quantity of sugar machinery imported into the Philippines 
every year, mostly of British manufacture; but lately German manufacturers have 
been sending out some burnished mills, which have taken the fancy of many of 
the native planters, who like show and also long credit. The natural products 
of the islands are timber, including many valuable woods yielding resins, gums, 
dye products, fine-grained ornamental wood, and heavy timber suitable for build- 
ing purposes, copper, and copjier and iron pyrites. Gold is also found in some 
quantity, and there are two coal mines situated on the east coast of the Island 
of Cebu, which yield sufficient coal to supply the local demand, and the quality i& 
stated to be little inferior to Australian and better than Japanese. 

The report on the trade and commerce of the Philippine Islands for the 
year 1897,. by Mr. Consul Rawson Walker, contains a considerable amount of infor- 
mation, but as it was written before the arrival of the United States fleet, many of 
the conditions are now completely changed. The most interesting feature in the 
report is a ])lan of the new harbor works at Manila, and which in the interval 
have been the scene of such important events. It is stated that when the works 
are completed at the port of Manila, there will be abundance of room, not only 
for men-of-war, but for all kinds of mercantile craft seeking to discharge their 
cargoes, or coming in ballast seeking freight. The possession of this harbor will 
add to the value of the Philippines as a naval and commercial station. 



t 



BOOK V. 



THE ISTHMIAN CANALS. THE WATERWAYS TO 

OUR TROPICAL POSSESSIONS, 

EAST AND WEST. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The debate about the expansion of the United States that so largely occupies 
the attention of our own people goes on in all civilized and semi-barbarous coun- 
tries. More than ever before in the records of the nations the great powers of 
Europe are interested in the extension, organization and cultivation of their colonies. 
Those who have the largest area of possessions that are not contiguous — the scraps 
of distant continents and islands remote, especially in the tropics — are the most 
eager of the expounders and the exemplars of expansion. The only country in 
which there is any misgiving that appears prominently in public discussion about 
the pursuit of this policy is our own. There has been something of hesitation 
in Germany and France, but that has passed away. Italy has had a bitter experience 
in Africa, but she has a grand passion to j^ossess a piece of China and is anxious 
to advertise her solicitude. There is no need to speak in detail of the imperial policy 
of Great Britain and Kussia. Germany is eagerly in the market for the few remnants 
we did not insist upon taking of the groups of islands that were, after she lost her 
continents, the pride of Spain. There is no sensitiveness in any part of the world 
about the great powers absorbing the smaller ones except among the professors of 
statesmanship in the United States; and it is safe to say that no other nation has 
a Colonial System ready made and long tried that is in all respects as available and 
susceptible to the legitimate influences of public opinion, as that which we have, 
in the Government of the territories under the laws of Congress and the adminis- 
tration of the President. There are excellent and conclusive examples in our his- 
tory of the success of this form of government over territories and of people that it 
is not the national policy to permit to become states. The peculiar distinction of 
our States — that element in them that makes them sovereign, subordinate only to 
the nationality of all the States — gives scope and verge for the expansion of our 
boundaries without embarrassment of the General Government, and for the consid- 
eration — to use the phrase of ex-President Harrison — of ''the quality as well as 
ihe numbers" of the inhabitants. The singular sentimentality, that has had many 
deliverances in opposition to our own occu])ation of our conquests from Spain, and 
that has insisted strangely and with a ludicrous obstinacy in repetition, that we 
have been conquering archipelagoes simply through benevolence based upon infinite 
charity, without other selfishness than that which arises from the due consideration 
of our health, is something that has come down to us in a thin streak from former 
generations. The persons and the views, both rather cloudy in mind and will and 

409 



41(1 I^'TRODUCTIOX. 

imcertain in attention, tliat have formed this milky way so that it shows faintly 
upon the sky that arches our imperial domain, is made of the individualities that 
perpt'tually yield to an instinct that j;uides and drives them into the minorities 
that look on and scold, while the majorities in their masterful way that is dema- 
cratic and according to the forms that are republican, "order and command," the 
procession of the events that mark progress. 

The fact that we send troop ships from both our ocean fronts to the luxuriant 
archipelago that borders the sea of China on the east, and that our ships going 
east and west meet in the harbor of ^Manila, girdling the earth in doing so, is of 
universal fame. The attention of all enlightened peoples is directed by these 
political, military and naval phenomena, to the Isthmus of Suez and the Isthmus 
of Darien, the links — would that they were missing — that bind the southern con- 
tinents of America and Afiica to the dominant North and vast and ancient Asia; 
and there is a consensus of opinion uniting the living nations that at last we must 
have another isthmian .•^hip canal. One cannot look upon a map of the world with- 
out Hie conviction that the Isthmus of Darien will be cut through, as that the Suez 
Isthmus has been severed, and that the United States of America with her ocean and 
sea and lake boundaries, has the greater responsiljility to press this gigantic work, 
for we would have the greater profit of it, not merely in the prosperity of commerce, 
but in the strength of our situation. Beyond this, the waterways around the earth, 
now nil liinger in dreamy contemplation, but matters of urgency, will aid all the 
good works of men by making the nations more neighborly. The Suez Canal is 
one of the wonders of enterprise successful in proportion to its magnitude, and the 
expansion of America — and the bugles have sounded it, as a movement that can 
never he recalled — has made definite and certain that one of the proposed Darien 
canals, the Panama or the Nicaragua, between the greater ocean of the globe and the 
Mediterranean of our hemisphere, must and shall soon be constructed. We do not 
enter upon the question of precedence between the Panama and Nicaragua schemes, 
but consider carefully in the occuiiancy of space the equities, just as if there were 
no embarrassing conditions — nothing but the physical obstacles to be overcome — 
giving the larger share to the Panama route because lately it has been least before 
our people; and the mystery of the omission of Congress to act, we have tried to 
clear away pro bono publico. There is a question of stock companies and inter- 
national principles that must be decided before we are committed to one project 
or the other. We shall jirobably have to wipe out a few corporations and promote 
the negotiation, ratification and execution of honest and substantial treaties that 
we niav jilant our inevitable millions — perhaps more than one hundred of millions — 
under an unclouded title upon indestructible foundations. 



H 

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A MALAY CHIEF OF MAGIEON. JOLO PKOVINC i:, WITH HIS FAMILY'AND SERVITORS. 





NATIVE WOMAN'S DRESS, MANILA. 



TYPES OK FILIPINO WOMEN. 



CHAPTEE I. 
THE PAXAJIA CANAL. 

The Two Mediterraneans — The Era of Entcrpri&o in tlio World's Waterways — 
The New Panama Company — Inunen.se Work Done — Steady Prosecution 
of the Task — More tlian Tliree Thousand Men Employed in E.xcavating — 
The Curiously Interesting Story of the Canal — The Misfortune of the 
De Lesseps Failure Not Final — Facts and Figures That Should Restore 
the Faded Interest of the American People. 

There are two Mediterranean seas — one in the Eastern and one in the Western 
hemisphere. That situated between Europe and Africa and hounding Central 
Asia on the west from Egypt to the Hellespont is the ocean of the ancients whose 
history is most familiar to us — the seat of the sea power of the earlier empires — 
transpierced in the center by the Italian peninsula, with the Island of Sicily, 
for which the Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans fought, until Rome became 
the master of the world that surrounded the sea that was in the middle of the 
earth. Africa seems to hang to Asia by a narrow neck of land, and swing in the 
aljyss of the Southern Oceans — a vast river, the Nile, flowing north from South 
Africa to the historic Mediterranean, the other great channels of African drainage 
])(niring their floods into the Atlantic. Through the Isthmus of Suez is excavated 
the most famous of canals, and it lias become the key to the British Empire, 
committed now to hold Egypt as long as she governs India, and cares for her 
commerce in Asiatic waters. We, the people of the United States, have a deeper 
interest in the haunts of the ancients than in other days, when we study the 
voyages of our regiments by way of Gibraltar and the Suez Canal en route in 
our troopships for Manila. The canal between Africa and Asia has become a 
highroad for our ships and troops from Atlantic shores to our new possessions 
on the other side of the world. The Gulf of Mexico is the American Mediter- 
ranean, North America on the north, and South America on the south, the 
])eninsulas of Florida and Yucatan with the Island of Cuba separating the huge 
Gulf from the Atlantic Ocean and the Cariljl^ean Sea. The correspondence between 
the two Mediterranean seas, that of the old world, from which Columbus came 
and that of the new he discovered, is in many respects remarkable. No map of 
the world fails to make conspicuous the two seas that are central to the old and 

the new. South America seems suspended like a prodigious pendulum, as we turn 

413 



414 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

a model of the globe, by the Isthmus of Darien, to Xorth America, whose gigantic 
arctic region is fixed in eternal ice; and the construction of a canal uniting the 
American Mediterranean with the Pacific, as that of Suez with the old Mediter- 
ranean by way of the Eed Sea with the Indian Ocean, and that, by the Sea of China 
with the Pacific, has ceased to be of dreams like those of flying to the moon, and 
is a colossal enterprise, not only an ultimate hope, but an improvement certain 
of execution at no very distant day. There is Capital and Labor to do it, and the 
first difiiculty is the obstinate and momentous one of the choice of routes. There 
are rival plans, the Panama and the Nicaragua. The latter has absorbed the 
greater attention in America, the former in Europe. It is probable that sooner 
than would be readily conjectured, both will be completed and in competi- 
tion until they find it reasonable and profitable to adopt the railroad trunk-line 
transcontinental policy, fixing rates to improve the standing of the stock, repre- 
senting tremendous investments. Once it was a wonder that there should be a 
railroad across the continent of North America. Now the average citizen does 
not know the number of lines that bind our dominions in bonds of steel, and span 
our Rocky Mountains and alkali plains with such ease of transfer that we cease to 
compute them as elevations or spaces, save as in distance measured by time, 
the freight rates and car fare. 

If the Isthmus of Darien had been a sandy plain like that of Suez, it would 
have been cut through by a ship canal long ago, and the thoroughfare undoubtedly 
the property of England, possibly with France for a partner, but the English 
would have had the majority interest in navigation, the greater weight of capital, 
the higher appreciation of commerce, and the deeper and keener sense of possession. 

The world heard, along with the measurements of the rugged strip of rocks 
that is the chief obstruction of the circumnavigation of the earth in the tropics, 
of the peaks of Darien, from which Balboa beheld the broader of the Oceans. Th 
discover)' of the Pacific was the opening of the most wonderful waste of waters 
in the world, and the imagination of adventurers soon peopled this great deep 
with surpassing visions of splendor, and there have been four centuries of blended 
history and commerce. 

D. C. Rodrigues, LL. B., in a work on the Panama Canal — Chas. Scribner & 
Sons, 1885 — devoted a chapter chiefly to the first centuries of the history of the 
American isthmus. As Rodrigues wrote, we quote "The Panama Canal," pages 
5-17: 

"The idea of piercing the isthmus between the two Americas is almost con- 
temporaneous with the first knowledge of the isthmus itself. The early navigators 



THE PAXAMA L'AXAL. 415 

could not help noticing how near to each other were the two oceans, and how 
comparatively ea:=y would be (they thought) the cutting of a canal through that 
narrow strip of land between them. The celebrated Portuguese navigator, Antonio 
Galvao, as early as 1550, wrote an essay on the subject, wherein he suggested 
four different lines, one of which was through the lake of Xicaragua, and the 
other by the Isthmus of Panama. Lopez Gomara, the Spanish historian, mentions 
m 1551 the four routes of which he very likely learned from the monograph of 
Galvao. 

"The idea, however, remained dormant for fully two centuries. One of the 
earliest exploits of Xelson was the attack on Port San Juan in 1779, with the 
ulterior purpose, it appears, of controlling the river and lake communications 
between the two oceans, of which the fort was supposed to be the best debouche. 
Fever, however, decimated his crew, and he returned to England. In the mean- 
time Charles III. of Spain sent out the really first exploring expedition under 
ilanuel Galistro, in ITSO; but the subsequent political complications in the Euro- 
pean polities diverted attention from his project. In the beginning of our century, 
Humboldt, who studied on the spot the problem of piercing the isthmus, strongly 
endorsed its feasibility, but all Europe was then, and remained for many years 
afterwards, in a great and general political reorganization. Most of the Spanish 
colonies in America threw off the yoke of the mother country between 1820 and 
1825, and, although the first survey of any part of the isthmus did not really 
take place until twenty years later, the well-known configuration of the isthmus 
strengthened the belief in the possibility of opening a canal, and the question 
was now and then ventilated. It is to the great credit of the Spanish Central 
American repttblics that as soon as they had secured their independence they de- 
voted themselves to the problem of procuring aid to forward the idea of inter- 
oceanic communication. In 1823, Lacerda, afterwards Governor of Xicaragua, 
called the attention -of the Legislature of the Republic to the stibject. Two years 
later we find a minister of the Eepublic in Washington addressing a note to the 
Secretary of State, Mr. Clay, urging the United States to co-operate for the con- 
struction of a canal which, he saj's, should have been built long before. That pro- 
posal, dated February 8, 1825, really invited the United States to conclude a treaty 
for a canal so as to "perpetually secure the possession of it to the two nations/' 
At that time no sufficient data had been brought to light to warrant Mr. Clay in 
committing the United States to a policy which otherwise would have been entirely 
acceptable to President Adams and to the American people. Mr. Clay appointed 
a new minister to Central America, and instructed him to further investigate 



■i\r, Till-: PANAMA (ANAL. 

the matter. In lt>:2U tlie Mexican Government ordered a survc}' of the Tehuan- 
tepec to be made by General Orbeguozo, who, however, only made a casual exam- 
ination. 

"In 1828, Boliver, President of the Republic of Xew Granada, gave to John 
A. Lloyd and to Falcmar a commission for a reconnoissance, with the immediate 
object of a roadway between the two oceans. They found the mean height of the 
Pacific or Panama to be 3.52 feet above the Atlantic at the Chagres' mouth, and 
that at low water both oceans are the same quantities below their respective mean 
levels: and as to interocoanic communication, they seemed to favor the isthmus 
at its narrowest region, just where there is a depression in the great range of 
mountains. 

"One year after the return of Lloyd, the King of the Netherlands, as patron 
of a private association, arranged with Central America for cutting a canal 'to be 
open on same terms to all nations.' But the political troubles between Belgium 
and Holland caused the scheme to miscarry. 

"For five years no effort was made that is deserving of consideration until 
the United States Government dispatched Chas. Biddle to the isthmus as an 
agent to investigate what plans, surveys, estimates, etc., had been made, and the 
rejiort on the e.xjiediency of opening negotiations with the Central American 
Government for tlie building of a canal. Biddle died soon after arriving at the 
isthmus, but not l)cfore he had obtained for himself from Colombia a concession 
to l)uild a railway across the Isthmus of Panama, which act President Jackson 
disapproved of in strong terms. 

"About a year afterward, the President of Central America, General Morazin, 
ordered a reconnoissance of the Bio San Juan route by John Bailey, an English- 
man. 

"In 1838, Xew Granada, anxious to take the lead of Nicaragua, listened to the 
proposition of a French house of Solomon & Co., and granted it a concession to 
build a canal by a supposedly newly discovered route where no locks would be 
required. Six years later on, Louis Falippe commissioned Napoleon Garella to 
verify the surprising reports of Solomon's agents. Garella's investigations were, 
perhaps, the most serious that had been undertaken until that time. They con- 
stitute, at least, the first semblance of a regular survey. He disproved the reports 
submitted to him, and came to the conclusion that a canal was possible between 
Porto Bello and Panama, with thirty-five locks and a tunnel, 5,350 meters in 
extent, at an elevation of 99 meters and about 135 feet above high water on the 
Pacific. The scheme, however, came to nothing. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 417 

"In the same year Nicaragua gave a concession to a Belgian company, the 
negotiation being carried on by the Nicaragnan minister in Paris, Castellon, but 
it also came to nothing. On the other hand, Marcoleta, two years later on, left 
Brussels, where he represented his government, and went to Paris and London in 
order to arrange for a concession to Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, then a 
prisoner in Ham. 

"It is apparent that none of these schemes was ever supported by any powerful 
agency, or Math steadiness, enough to be carried through. There was always a 
doubt alxiut the possibility of the work, or a doubt that it might never be possible 
to obtain money enough to push it to a conclusion. On the other hand, advan- 
tageous as it was evident the canal would be to the whole world, the shipping 
trade that would seek it did not appear to be extensive enough to remimerate the 
capital that would be required. But at last the world found a powerful incentive 
to give close attention to the political and commercial importance of the canal. 
The acquisition of California by the Fnited States, and the discovery of gold in 
its territory, marks a new era in the history of the attempts to make serious studies 
of the isthmus with a view to establishing a continuous water communication 
between the two oceans. The jjroblem, too, now became one of actual, live 
political importance to the Americans, and the period between 1848 and 18G1 
was full of interest to them on account of the political discussion with Great 
Britain as to the preponderating influence in Central America and the occupa- 
tion of the isthmus by cither government. 

"While that problem was not settled, the Americans, anxious for means of 
communication, if not by water then by an overland route, obtained from New 
Granada a concession for a railway; and for that purpose they formed a company 
in 1849, and instructed the surveys to Colonel Hughes and to J. C. Trautwine. 
The United States Government soon afterwards sent General Bernard, of the 
corps of engineers, to survey the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, also with a view to 
Iniilding a railway. Bernard found the route impracticable, while Hughes and 
Trautwine succeeded much better in Panama and designed a road of the total 
length of 47.314 miles, of which about half was to be level between 18.50 and 
1855 by the engineers Totten and Trautwine. 

"In the meantime the idea of a canal was not to be given uj). The T'nited 
States Minister in Nicaragua, Elijah Hise, concluded at the same time (184!}) 
witli that government a treaty for establishing 'a passage and communication 
between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, to facilitate the commerce 
between the two oceans, and to produce other great results.' Owing to its sev- 



418 THE PANAMA CAXAL. 

oral provisions of a political nature the authorities at Washington did not approve 
that scheme, known henceforth as the 'Hise-Selva Convention.' But the country 
received the arrangement with every mark of approval, and a company was at 
once organized by Cornelius Yanderbilt, Joseph L. White and others under the 
style of 'American Atlantic and Pacific Ship-Canal Company," which obtained from 
Nicaragua the right to build the proposed canal, that was, we repeat in 1849, 
when the English were trying hard to get a firm hold on what was supposed to 
be the future termini of the canal, while the Americans were protesting against 
that occupation, and had tliemselves repudiated the treaty concluded by their 
minister in Honduras, Squier, for the cession by the latter country to the United 
States of the Tigre Island, in the Fonseca Bay. It was from these conflicting 
interests that the Clayton-Iiulwer treaty of 1850 originated. 

"However, the 'American Atlantic and Pacific' was organized by strong 
men, who proposed to survey the route thoroughly and then appeal for money, 
both in America and England. On March 9, 1850, Xorberto Ramirez, 'Supreme 
Director" of Nicaragua, confirmed the company's grant, and the company com- 
missioned Colonel 0. W. (hilds to make the necessary studies. He made recon- 
noissance from several of the proposed routes, and, after a careful work, in which 
he was aided by J. D. Fay and S. H. Sweet, he came to the conclusion that 'the 
line leading from the mouth of the Rio Lajas, at Brito, presented more favorable 
conditions for the construction of a canal than any other." His survey is said to be 
the first in the isthmus that conformed itself to the requirements of true engineer- 
ing. Child's report was submitted to Colonels Turnbull and Abert, of the 
Ignited States Topographical Engineers, who confirmed its accuracy, and then, 
at the request of the United States Government, it was revised by two English 
authorities. Colonel Aldrich, of the Royal Engineers, and Mr. James Walker, 
C. E., who, on July 16, 1852, confirmed its conclusions. 

"The 'Atlantic and Pacific" company, however, did not succeed in raising 
tlie money. Walker's expedition to Nicaragua, fomented mainly by the slave 
jiower, but emphatically disowned by the Washington authorities, caused the Nica- 
raguan Government to ])ecome very suspicious of the United States, and in 185G 
the company's grant was declared null and void. Thanks, however, to the ability 
of the Secretary of State, Lewis Cass, a convention, known as the 'Cass-Yrisarri 
Convention,' was negotiated in Washington on Novemlier 16, 1857, making annual 
arrangements with respect to a communication from ocean to ocean through Nica- 
rasrua. 



THE PANAMA C'AXAL. 419 

"Let us now see what was going on in other parts of the isthmus in the 
fourteen _years between 1850 and 18G4. 

"A rich Xew York merchant, ilr. Frederick il. Kelle}', impressed with the 
belief that Iluniholdt must liave l)een right as regards the feasibility of a canal 
through Daricn, sent; in 18,-)1, J. ('. Trautwinc. a prominent civil engineer, who 
had been associated with Colonel Childs, and until his death was more or less 
connected with the isthmus explorations, to make a reconnoissance of the head- 
waters of the Atrato. of llie (lylf of Daiien, and of the mythical Raspadura t'anal, 
through which the Indians were said to cross from ocean to ocean. Although the 
resiilt of this expedition was by no means encouraging, Jlr. Kelley organized 
two others in 1853 to go over the same groimd, which, liowever, did not discover 
anything which had not been brought forward by Trautwine. 

"Mr. Kelley then tried the jieadwaters of the Atrato, and tlience in the direc- 
tion of the Truando, sending out two parties, in 1853 and 1854, the latter under 
Captain Kennish. Later on he came to Europe to submit his plans, surveys, etc., to 
the English and French savants, and he was everywhere received with the greatest 
marks of regard. 

"On his return to America, having been unable to accomplish anything in 
Europe, President Buchanan, who while minister in England had taken an interest 
in ]\lr. Kelley "s enthusiastic labors, procured the passage by Congress of a bill 
authorizing the President to apj)oint army and navy otficers to verify tlie survey 
already made for a shi])-canal. Agreeably to the act of the Legislature, the 
President appointed Lieutenant X. Miehler of the army and Lieutenant T. A. 
Craven, of the navy, to verify the survey of Captain Kennish. Those officers 
made separate report.*- Miehler was of the opinion that the construction of a 
canal presented many dilfie.ulties, that the cost was incalculable, and that the 
effects of a deadly climate on the laborers must be taken into account. r)Ut he 
thought the scheme was possible, especially if Kennish's I'oute were abandoned 
and another one, which he now propo'sed, were taken up instead — viz., that which 
follows up the course of tlie Truando, except when this river bends to the north, 
when the route ought to follow a straight line to the Atrato, twenty-two miles 
above the village of Sucio. The route would then strike the range of moun- 
tains, which it would cross by means of a tunnel 12,250 feet in length, following 
flown in the Pacific slope the course of the Paracichichi. ilichlcr estimated the 
cost of this canal — 75 miles long, including the tunnel, 100 feet high above the 
water— to be $135,000,000, or £27,000,000, which was twice as much as had been 
estimated in America, according to the data of Kennish him.self. Mr. Kennish 



■laO' THE PANAMA CANAL. 

was not satisfied that it would he safe to persist in that Truaudo-Atrato route, 
at least for the moment. 

"This public-spirited American then turned his attention to the possibility 
of a sea-level canal, even if a great tunnel became necessary. He first asked 
General Totten, of the Panama railway, to let him have his views as to that 
route being available. Totten reported that the Chagres river could not be con- 
trolled and would break up the canal, and, besides,, ten or twelve locks would 
have to be made. Mr. Kelley directed his efforts to the San Bias route, in that 
part of the isthmus which is narrowest, between the Gulf of San Bias, on the 
Atlantic, to the mouth of the Bayano, on the Pacific. Two expeditions were sent 
out, composed of Rude, Sweet, McDougal, and others, in 18G3 and 1864, and 
they were nearly successful, but could not finish their labors on account of the 
interference of the Indians. Altogether Mr. Kelley has spent from bis private 
resources about £25,000 in this laudable purpose. Everywhere in the world where 
there was a congress of gentlemen to confer about the routes it would seem that 
Frederick M. Kelley, of Xew York, should have been listened to, if not with admira- 
tion and affection, at least with respect. And yet at the Paris 'International Sci- 
entific Congress' of 1879, when an American delegate asked the committee on the 
selection of a route to give a hearing to the project of ilr. Kelley from San 
Bias to Panama by the Bayano river, which was seconded by Sir John Stokes, 
who added that what was known of that route Justified a hope that the proiect 
might deal advantageously with some of the difficulties, there was a great deal of 
opposition to the proposal to hear Mr. Kelley. M. Simonon, known for his ex- 
tremely superficial and not altogether reliable articles on the United States in 
'La France" and 'Eevue des Deux Mondes,' exclaimed: 'We are not here to 
register these schemes. Do they propose that we shall set about and examine 
everything that the Americans have been doing for the last ten years? We should 
lose our time. We have to discuss only the projects ofM. M. Wyse and Reclus, 
Blanclu't and Menocal, and others.' M. Simonon might as well have eliminated 
the two latter names. He and his friends did not want to hear but of the Wyse- 
Eeclus project, and in their cynical effrontery they even snubbed a man like 
Kelley! 

"Leaving now the Darien aside, let us see what was going on in the isthmus 
in these same fourteen ^-ears, from 1850 to 18G4, apart from tlie work in Nicaragua 
and the labors of ilr. Kelley. 

"Dr. Edward Cullen, a Dublin physician, interested himself very much in 
the project of a ship canal between the Gulf of San ^ligucl and Caledonia Bay; 



THE PANAMA I'AXAL. 431 

and in 1853, after calling Lord Palmerston's attention to his scheme, he interested 
in it the contractors Fox, Henderson, and Brassey, of London, and obtained 
for them and himself a concession from Colombia for such n canal. The con- 
tractors dispatched Lionel (iisborne, C. E., to make an exploration. He reported 
favorably, but his report is fnll of errors, due to the sui)erficial character of his 
examination, the result of which is published in his book, 'The Isthmus of Darien 
in 18.53." At any rate, his endorsement of the Caledonian route attracted wide 
interest in the suliject, and in the T'nited States President Pierce in 18.33 author- 
ized the Secretary of the Navy to commission Lieutenant Isaac C. Strain, who 
was not a new explorer of Central and South America, to go over the proposed 
route and report upon its feasibility for a 'ship canal on the grandest scale.' Also 
'avoiding all infractions of international law." Lieutenant Strain reached Cale- 
donia Bay from the United States in January, 1854, and, with twenty-seven men, 
started for the interior of Darien. This expedition became one of the most impor- 
tant in the history of the isthmus. British capital was ready to be invested in the 
common scheme, but Strain was to give the last word. He soon discovered that 
Gisborn's report was altogether unreliable. Strain was confronted l)y mountains 
3,500 feet in height instead of only 150 feet. His party could not help taking 
different routes, climbing steep hills and meeting roaring rivers. Strain himself 
was lost sight of, and searching jiarties were organized, one of them by Gisbom 
himself. The history of tb.e teriiMc privations and sufferings undergone by Strain 
and some of his men, from hunger and thirst, and the'enforced abandonment of 
one of their companions, who, though still alive, was too weak to follow them, 
and the death of others, is one of the most stirring narratives in the annals of 
the difficult explorations of the wurld. AVhen Strain was found he said that its 
failure was in itself a great success, for it gave the death blow to the Cullen 
scheme, thereby preventing great sacrifice of life and money. In 1856, as we 
have already said, Nicaragua annulled the concession to the 'Atlantic and Pacific,' 
and a year afterwards the United States Government ordered the Michler and 
Craven surveys in the Darien. Except llr. Kelley's expeditions, nothing was 
undertaken by the United States Government or its citizens from 1857 until 1869. 
In 1857 the political agitation in the United States was already assuming the 
most serious character, which revealed itself in the breaking out of the Civil 
War a few years later on, and even at the conclusion of the internecine strife, the 
jntldic mind was too much preoccupied with the reorganization of the Union, 
with 4,500,000 newly made citizens, to give any attention to the subject of inter- 
oceanic communication. During the war the necessity for it became apparent, and 



422 Till-: TAX A. MA CAXAL. 

the racific Railway bills were carried, hut beyond that nothing was done, and, 
considering the [losition assumed towards Congress by Andrew Johnson, who 
substituted for the murdered President I-incoln, nothing could have been done by 
the (I'overnnient in that time. In iMiid Daniel Ammen, then lieutenant in the 
United States navy, impressed by the result of Strain's reconnoissance, addressed a 
comniunication to the Xew York Geographical Society, suggesting to it to send out 
an exiiedition, and giving in detail the task that should be intrusted to it. After 
tlie war nanicl Amnien, \vho had l)een promoted to the rank of captain, had 
frequent occasions to discuss the matter with prominent officers of the Govern- 
ment, and he interested General (Jrant very much respecting the necessity for 
further surveys. T"p to the end <<( tiie Civil War the only semblance of a 
regular survi'v in the isthmus made by a Frenehman was that of Garella already 
referred to. In 1861 M. de Poydt e.xamined tiie Tuyra (Darien) and several of 
its tributaries, and in 1864 he returned to make a reconnoissance of the Gulf of 
Darien by the Tanelo river. His data, however, altogether unreliable. 

"In 1865 Senor Gogorza discovered some old maps and induced some capitalists 
in Talis to fit out an expedition uudrr il. I.acharme, to study a passage by the 
Eiver Panuza, a confluent of the Tuyra. While in the field Lacharme abandoned 
the proposed rotite and followed the course of the Paya up to the watershed, and 
then that of the Cacarica to the Atrato, whence he came back satisfied as to the 
possibility of a canal'tifty miles long, with the summit, near the village of Paya, 
only 100 feet above the sea level. Beyond that nothing else was ever done in the 
isthmus by Frenchmen until the Wyse-Recluse exjieditions." 

The conditions of the Panama climate were treated with great intelligence in 
"The Isthmus of Panama and AMuit I Saw There," by Dr. C. D. Griswold. il. D.— 
Dewitt & Davenjiort, lSo2. We ijuote as an essential part of the story of the 
isthmus the extremely valuable observations of Dr. Griswold that touch the science 
of the sanitary situation — pages !)0-100: 

"The latitude of that part of the isthmus over which the Panama Railroad 
passes Is between 8 and 9 degrees north, and, consequently, is subject twice in 
the year to the vertical rays of the sun, viz.: about the 21st of April and near 
the nv'ddle of August. The year is divided into two seasons, with little el.';e to 
distinguish them than that the one is wet and the other dry, and in this they 
are very strongly marked. The rainy season is their winter and corresponds with 
our summer, the rains beginning to fall about the 1st of May, usually, and termi- 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 4S;! 

nating in December; and thus, although this is their coolest season, in consequence 
of the heavy rains and evaporations, yet it is the period when the sun's rays fall 
most vertically, and, therefore, the two great elements in the production of un- 
h.calthy exhalations, viz.: heat and moisture, are operating in their extremest 
degrees at the same time. But it should be understood that, while the surface is 
undergoing the change from wet to dry, that miasma is eliminated most rapidly. 
"During the first two or three months of the wet season it does not rain 
more than is generally found agreeable to the comfort, and to advance the growth 
of vegetation; and about the 21st of June it clears up and probably not a drop 
«f rain will fall for a week. This season is called by the natives El Veranito di 
San Juan (little summer of St. John). Now, during this period, the earth is 
alternately saturated and parched, and, consequently, there is always more or less 
fever pievailing. But it is at the commencement of the dry season, when the 
rivers that have been swollen by the heavy rains fall to their usual level and 
the low grounds and marshes that have been inundated become dry, that we look 
for what may be termed strictly the sickly season. 

"Dysenteries and diarrheas prevail more commonly during the wet season, 
and for very obvious reasons. Notwithstanding the elevation of the sun during 
the day the nights are often quite cool. Now, there is nothing more favorable 
to the development of these diseases than sudden changes of temperature; and 
here we have them. The laborer at work in the field first swelters under the hot 
sun and then is sxiddenly cooled off by a shower of rain, and most likely sleeps 
<it night exposed to the chilly air, which under all circumstances should be most 
scrupulously avoided. 

"With such influences as these acting, it would be very unreasonable to expect 
but that the country would Ije more or less unhealthy, which is truly the case, yet 
four-fifths of the cases of disease which occur are simple intermittent fever, or 
iigue and fever, which the judicious use of fifteen grains of quinine will entirely 
remove, leaving the patient, after one paroxysm, as well as he was before. 

"By observing projjcr precautions a great deal may be done to avoid the 
miasma, which is the essential cause of the fevers. Miasma is eliminated while 
the surface is drying, after having beien saturated by an overflow of the streams 
or previous rains, consequently at such times the atmosphere contains more poison 
than at any other. Another fact which has long been observed is that the evening 
or night air is most of all pernicious, not so much because it is cool or damp, 
but from the unhealthy exhalations which hover near the earth like smoke and 
fog during the night more than at any other time. The pleasant evenings after 



424 Till-; PANAMA lAXAJ.. 

clear clays, wliicli are always delightful in that climate, are by far the worst, 
especially if there has been rain within a short time previous. The night air 
is so balmy and fresh after a hot day that it is almost impossible to resist the 
tcm]itation to enjoy it, at least with open windows or in tlie veranda, yet it is 
very imprudent to do so. Another precaution, of more consequence still, is to close 
up from the night air the sleeping room, which for reasons already assigned 
should never be on the ground lloor. While sleeping the system is very much 
relaxed, and, perhajis, drenched in jierspiration, and, consecjuently, far more im- 
jiressible than at any other time, and, moreover, about 12 o'clock the temperature 
of the atmosplwrc usually becomes much lower than at any other part of the twenty- 
four hours. Xow, in order to avoid the miasma on one hand and the sudden 
change of temperature on the other, it is always desirable to sleep in an upper 
room, and tliis should invariably be constructed witli a ventilator in the roof. 

"There is another class of causes far more numerous, and, perhaps, more 
important, by which I mean everything calculated to excite fever after the system 
has become predisposed to it. Foreigners residing in this country usually become, 
after a time, a good deal enervated; tlu'V find they cannot perform near as much 
labor, either physical or mental, as in a northern climate. An extreme degree of 
lassitude overtakes them at times, and they feel it almost impossible to perfyrm 
an}' duties whatever. This is the effect of miasma; the system contains the fuel of 
fever, which only requires to be ignited. Xow, this is the state in which exciting 
causes are instrumental in producing the disease, and anything may be deemed 
such which excites or taxes the S3'.stem to any considerable extent, as excessive 
fatigue, exposure to the sun long continued, or a shower of rain while perspiring, 
overindulgence in eating, and, above all, in tlie use of stimulating drink. During 
my services of nearly six months, as one of the surgeons to the Panama Eailroad 
Company, I never saw a single case of fever from which I apprehended a fatal 
result but in persons of intemperate habits, and the only two patients whose cases 
terminated fatally under my charge had been immediately previous on a debauch. 

"Of all exciting causes of fever I believe this by far the most potent in its 
residts, if not the most common. 1 am aware that there are exceptions to this — 
that there are those who bear up under the influence of the use of stimulating 
drinks — but they must be considered as exceptions, and their number is very small. 
The effect of stimulants is to derange the functions of the liver, which is also the 
effect of the climate, and under the influence of l>oth there are few constitutions that 
can long resist diseases. 

"Nor is it the use of alcoholic drinks on the isthmus alone that is found 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 435 

injurious, but those who, previous to going there have been intemperate — whose 
constitutions have become in the slightest degree impaired — are almost sure to 
break down at once. I have seen this ett'ect in so many instances that I have no 
hesitation in setting it down as an almost invariable rule, and, therefore, would 
advise any such unfortunate individual to keep ofE the isthmus if he values his 
life as of the least possible consequence. 

"Everyone has probably heard of the 'Chagres fever," which is usually spoken 
of with an emphasis which strikes terror to the timid, especially if they have ever 
been exposed to the atmosphere of that place. 

"Although the name is not, by any means, a classic one, yet it has the advan- 
tage of being correct in a general sense, for I do not believe that there is another 
place in the w'orld where the causes of diseases are developed and fostered to a 
greater extent than they are in this place -of most unenviable notoriety. The 
consequence is that a bad and fatal form of fever prevails there at times, which is 
most emphatically the fever of Chagres, and the unmeasured use of intoxicating 
drinks is one of its principal causes. 

"Exposure to the rains of that country is another very exciting cause of 
fever and should be very carefully avoided. This has been one of the great causes 
of fever and dysentery among the laborers on the Panama Eailroad. Often they 
would scarcely get to their work when a sudden shower would fall upon them, and 
when perspiring profusely over the spade or pick. If they abandoned w'ork for 
the day but few would have the prudence to change their clothes for dry ones, 
and, perhaps, resume the same wet garments the following morning. Now, noth- 
ing can be more prejudicial to health anywhere than such habits as these, and 
when we add to this the, perhaps, worse practice of sleeping with the windows 
and doors of their quarters open, which they would always insist upon doing, it is 
more a matter of wonder than otherwise that they endure the climate as well as 
they do. The railroad company makes the most liberal provisions for their com- 
fort, but it was always impossible to make them rmderstand that there were any 
a-easons for closing a house other than to keep out the cold. The native, on 
the approach of a shower, strips off his shirt, which is probably the only garment 
he wears; securing it in a dry jjlace, he lets the rain fall upon his bare back and 
then resumes his covering after it is all over. 

"This is truly a primitive mode of protection from rain, yet from what I 
have seen I judge it to be the best. The perspiration may be checked for the time 
and the system receive a shock from so plentiful a shower bath; but the function 
of the skin is immediately restored by the dry covering, and, on the whole, upon 



42G THE I'AXAMA (ANAL. 

4 

liydropathic principles, I am not f^urc but the subject has received a tonic after 
nature's purest method, and without interfering with his time or business. But 
wlien a native gets the fever he repudiates this practice altogether, so much so that 
it is often exceedingl)' difficult to get them to take any remedy combined with water; 
and they most scrupulously avoid the use of water externally, even in quantity sulli- 
cient to keep themselves clean. The native's remedy for fever is limes, the juice of 
which they suck from them, while the fever is on, with slices of the same placed 
upon the forehead and temples, and with this simple treatment and abstinence from 
water and food they readily recover. Bathing in the streams is a very common 
practice among them during the dry season, but they seldom indulge in this luxury 
after 10 o'clock, and rarely at all during the rainy season. 

"A very widespread impression prevails in the public mind in favor of the 
southern climate to those who are predisposed to or affected with consumptive dis- 
eases, and as a general thing such is the case; but the Isthmus is an exception to 
the general rule; for, whether or not it is the approximation of the two oceans, 
and almost constant sea breezes, or the extreme dampness of the climate; either or 
both of these causes; in no place have I seen consumption more rapidly developed; 
indeed, it is a disease of which the natives very commonly die. The same is true 
of almost every other taint in the system. 

"A very, important consideration for those who visit this climate is that of 
dress. The experience of the English and American Army and Navy surgeons in 
tropical climates is well sustained here with regard to the use of flannels. There 
is nothing which so well protects the cutaneous surface against the effects of sun 
and rain as this material; it prevents the rapid evaporation from the surface, and 
consequent sudden check of the perspiration; and a shower of rain or the night air 
may be borne with far greater safety if the skin is protected by this covering; and 
light gauze flannel next to the skin will usually be found to add much to the com- 
fort; but to those who are frequently exposed a good substantial red or blue one 
is much ]ireferable. 

"Another preventative which I deem of great importance, and which has hith- 
erto been entirely neglected, is the use of fires. During the rainy season the, atmos- 
phere is very damp, and pervades everything; even the closest doors will not ex- 
clude it, and clothes will become mouldy without frequent sunning or the liberal 
use of cam]ihor gum sprinkled among them. Such an atmosphere, especially in a 
sleeping room, must, of course, be more or less detrimental to health; but its effects 
may be entirely overcome by the occasional use of a fire in the afternoon, when the 
air is frequently so cool as to render it very grateful to the senses. Heat is, more- 



TlIK PANAMA C'AXAL. 427 

over, one of the most jjoweii'ul disiiifeeting agents we have, but how i'ar it would 
prove effectual in dissipating the miasma is not certainly known, although there is 
no doubt but that it would to a considerable extent." 

In the Forum of March, 1893, an article appears, ''Panama: The Story of a 
Colossal Bubble," by Ernest Lambert. This i)aper relates the personal appearance 
of Count de Lesseps of Suez Canal fame on the Pacific Ocean, and the picturesque 
way in which in a fictitious manner he handled a spade on a steamboat, performing 
the ceremony of turning the first sod or soil or sand, as the function might Ije, in 
the formal inauguration of an enterprise. Mr. Ernest Lambert writes: 

"In 1880, on the day set for the initial ceremonies of the Panama Canal work, 
a little flag-bedecked vessel steamed out of the harbor of Panama with Count Ferdi- 
nand de Lesseps and an illustrious company on board, bound for La Boca, the point 
on the Pacific shore of the Isthmus at which the canal was to emerge. Through 
some miscalculation the steamer was delayed in arriving until after the tide had 
begun its rapid fall. The eminent voyagers eyed the shore wistfully and looked 
at one another in consternation as the captain vainly essayed to land them among 
the rocks. La Boca flags beaconed encouragingly from the spot where the veteran 
'piercer of continents' was to turn the first shovelful of earth; but the tide con- 
tinued to fall and the distance to the shore increased. In this dilemma the versatile 
leader proved his brilliant fertility of resource. Uncovering his silvery locks he 
addressed a felicitious harangue to his companions, called for a spade, and turned 
on the steamer's deck an imaginary Isthmian clod. Then champagne was opened, 
everybody cheered, and the little steamer swung about and sailed away gayly with 
fluttering banners. In January, 1893, when his doom had been practically sealed 
liy disclosures hardly paralleled in this or any other century, police agents visited 
the French mansion of this same man with a legal summons. Aged and infirm, he 
arose from a sick-bed, called for his cross of the Legion of Honor, clasped it theat- 
rically to his breast and fell back fainting. 

"These two incidents accurately typify the real spirit that has governed, from 
first to last, the conduct of the most tremendous engineering feat of modern times. 
Beside which, as its history shows, the cutting of the Mont Cenis Tunnel or the 
Suez Canal was mere child's play. M. De Lesseps' indefatigable predecessor with the 
Darien project, if not its real initiator, it is not perhaps generally known, was an 
American, Frederick M. Kelley, of Xew York, who should never be lost sight of 
in posterity's ultimate award. Before even the Suez Canal was attempted Kelley had 
begun to wander up and down, from country to country and capital to capital, like 
Columbus with a new route to the East in his brain, striving to enlist in his fasci- 



4->8 THE PAXAJIA CAXAL. 

nating scheme for saving millions of dollars annually to commerce and shortening 
the ocean journey by many thousands of miles. As early as 1852, when only 28 
years old, Kelley, then a Wall street banker, became sole owner of the Columbian 
concession, subsequently transferred to French hands. Within three years he had 
acconi])anied, or dispatched, three expeditions to search for a depression in the 
Cordillera barrier that should enable him to utilize the Isthmian rivers running 
southward in an artificial waterway, to be continued thence by a short cut to the 
Pacific shore. Armed with maps and plans, he secured a respectful hearing from 
President Pierce and Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War, who, however, lacked 
funds to order a Government survey. In Europe Humboldt and Robert Stephenson 
encouraged him; the British institution of Civil Engineers voted him a gold medal 
for a paper 'Demonstrating the feasibility of connecting the two oceans by a canal 
without locks,' and Napoleon III. even offered to make a survey at France's expense, 
after Kelley had unfortunately conijiromised himself with the English. In 1837 
President Buchanan did order a Government expedition, which returned in 1858, 
one officer reporting favorably, aiiotlicr adversely. With the outbreak of the Be- 
bellion Kelley's concession expired, and he withdrew, impoverished, from the strug- 
gle. But in 1863, when the San Bias route was talked of, his old interest blazed 
up anew; he talked over wealthy friends and was instrumental in the dispatch of 
two other expeditions. It was not until 1875 that De Lesseps, who had met Kelley 
years before in London, organized his Isthmian Exploring Society, and inaugurated 
the movement that culminated in tlie International Canal Congress of 1879 and 
the adoption of a route specifically condemned by the most competent experts. 

'"Flushed with the merited success of his great Suez achievement, just then 
teginning to confound all augury, M. De Lesseps was in a position to engage enthu- 
siastic public support in any effort to blow the airiest of bubbles. 'Goethe's nine- 
teenth century dream of canals at Suez and Paiuniia. and linking the Bhine and the 
Danube, he had realized as to the first particular; why should he not do so as to 
the second? The very croakings against Suez of incredulous statesmen and engi- 
neers, from Palmerston and Stevenson down, he was ready to cite in defense of a 
new undertaking. The favorite taunt of his English enemies, that he was 'no en- 
gineer, but a mere diplomatist,' he met with the same refutation. Nothing else 
in his record, to be sure, sustained him. It was not as an engineer that he began 
his Tunis a|ii)rentieeship: in Algeria, ^Madrid, Bome and Alexandria impugners of 
his diplomacy never excused him on technical grouhds. Even at Suez, what M. 
Leon Say has called his genius for 'unravelling the future of international rela- 
tions,' coupled with the adroit distribution of Bach.sheesh and the propitiation of 




VIEW OF LA ESCOLTA .STREET, CITY OF MANILA. 




B.4THING POOL ON ROAD TO DAS MARINAS, .\T IMUS, PROVINCE OF C.VTITE. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 431 

a willinfj and unscrupulous potentate, undoubtedly won him success where the 
very Caesar of engineers might quickly have buried his hopes in th& desert sands. 
Certainly the calling of the Canal Congress, to extricate himself from the disagree- 
able responsibility of choosing expertly between five routes and eight competing 
propositions, was not the device of one who had reasoned out to its minutest detail 
the masterly solution of a great practical pro1)k'm. Thus, indeed, at the outset a 
crumbling foundation was laid for the ambitious structure that has now so disas- 
trously collapsed. Exactly what he knew personally of the precise nature of the 
task before him it is not now difficult to estimate. When the Congress met he 
was said to regard tJie elements requisite to a practicable canal as, 1, no locks; 3, 
good harbors; 3, the avoidance of other than tidal rivers — conditions, in effect, du- 
plicating those at Suez. In the Congress it was positively decided that no canal 
with locks could accommodate a traffic sufficiently large to yield an adequate 
revenue; and when, at the closing session, by a vote of 78 to 8, 12 abstaining, the 
Congress formally declared in favor of the present route, it was understood that tlie 
adherence to the Suez model and the accommodation of future great vessels, rather 
than immediate commercial profit from existing opportunities, were the governing 
considerations. As a third element of weakness, it may be noted that the stipula- 
tions in the concession to Lieutenant Wyse, approved by President Paera of Colom- 
bia in 1878, were not uniformly favorable; nor were its advantages adequately im- 
proved. While granting the right of construction for 99 years from the date the 
canal was opened, it reqiiired the international commission to decide the route not 
later than 1881. The guarantees were then to form witliin two years a construction 
company, finishing the canal within another twelve years, or forfeiting all rights, 
together with the work accomplished, and all but the movable plant. The President 
to Colombia was authorized (not required) to grant a maximum extension of six 
years 'if, in an extreme ease, beyond the control of the company, and after one- 
third part of the canal is complete, they should recognize the impossibility of fin- 
ishing it in twelve years.' Not a word was said concerning recovery or indemnifi- 
cation in case of failure before the specified proportion was completed. M. Wyse, 
no doubt, whose exjjerience has been a little more fortunate than Kelley's, never 
anticipated such a contingency or dreamed of the bungling indiscretion that was to 
link his name with the most colossal failure of the times. 

"It would be the most gross injustice for the world to forget that Count Ferdi- 
nand De Lesseps, though failing in his Panama Canal endeavor, must forever be 
counted as one of the great men of his generation. He realized one dream. It was 
beyond mortal strength that one man, however gifted and brave, should win a 



432 TIIK PANAMA CAXAL. 

double immortality in constructing canals through the sands of Suez and the rocks 
of Darien. H5 could not accomplish the impossible. That which is wonderful is 
the gigantic work that was done before it was established that there was a formid- 
able margin between the estimates covered by resources and the remainder. The 
stupendous proportions of the task are now fully before the world, and the sur- 
prise is, turning from the exaggeration of the failure of De Lessci)s, to discover 
the immensity which has been achieved." 

After the failure of the old Panama Canal Company in February, 1S8!*, the 
property passed into the hands of a receiver, who, seeking to save from ruin the vast 
number of subscribers of moderate means, referred the technical problems to a 
"Comite d'Etudes"' selected from among the best engineers of France. In May, 
1890, this commission made an able report, indicating the numerous points which 
demanded further investigation before final plans could be judiciously adopted, but 
suggesting the general features of such a plan, based on a study of all existing 
data. To make these further investigations a new company was organized in Octo- 
ber, 1894; and since that date it has quietly prosecuted its labors and has now 
collected all the information needed to command tlie confidence of engineers in its 
definite project. It is to set forth this project, and to indicate its superiority to 
aiiytliing possible in Nicaragua, that the present article is written. It may be proper 
to add that the writer, as a member of a technical commission of engineers, made 
last spring a careful examination of the entire route of the Panama Canal, and is 
thus possessed of definite personal information, in some degree assisted by having 
formerly traversed Nicaragua. The following are the essential features of this 
])roject, endorsed, with some possible future modifications in detail, by a Comite 
Technique, containing French, English, German, Russian and American engineers, 
among them the chief engineers of the Manchester and of the Kiel ship canals. 

The original jilan contemplated i>lacing the canal in the lied of the Chagres, 
and conducting the river to the sea through artificial channels. This project was 
long ago definitely abandoned, being replaced by the familiar system of locks and 
dams which has been so often successfully applied to other rivers. Careful measure- 
ments and studies of the roginien of this torrential stream have shown the system 
to be entirely applicable to it, and that none of the constructions demanded will 
exceed the limits of recognized engineering practice. To these advantages it should 
be added that two good harbors already exist at the Atlantic and Pacific terminals; 
that an American railway is in active operation parallel and in close proximity to 
the line of the canal throughout its entire extent; that about 40 per cent of the 
whole length has been actually excavated, and that great progress has been made 



THE PANAMA CAXAL. 433 

on the intermediate portions; and finally, tliat extensive preparations have already 
been made for accommodating the army of laborers which will be required on any 
Isthmian canal. These reasons certainly demand that the comparative merits of 
this route should be considered before adopting any other location for the canal 
now generally believed to be essential to meet the needs of our Atlantic and Pacific 
coasts. 

In Nicaragua the general conditions are distinctly inferior. Two ports must 
be artificially prepared; one at least of great practical ditticulty," since nature has 
already closed the old harbor. About 120 miles of railroad must be built, mostly 
traversing a wilderness. Almost nothing has been done in the way of construction 
or of preparation for the work. Of the whole length of 176 miles, 68 miles follow 
the bed of a crooked river, where the prevailing trade winds and the currents result- 
ing from the whole outflow of Lake Nicaragua will unite to aggravate the difficul- 
ties of shipping in transit. The length of the route is about four times that of 
the Panama Canal, adding proportionately to the time of passage; finally, at least 
one dam is demanded, quite without precedent in our canal construction, besides 
several miles of huge embankments in the San Francisco basin, where the founda- 
tions are extremely bad, and where a rupture at any future time woitld entail verit- 
able disasters. 

But passing from generalities, the details of the Panama project will first be 
considered. 

The Canal Proper. — The total length is T5 kilometres (46.5 miles), of which 
five (3.1 miles) lie in the Bay of Panama, between Isle Naos and La Boca. Of the 
70 kilometres (43.4 miles) of inland construction, 34 kilometres (14.88 miles) on 
the Atlantic side (between Colon and Bohio) and 7 kilometres (4.34 miles) on the 
Pacific side (between La Boca and Miraflores) will be at the sea level, and of this 
distance about 2.5 kilometres (15.5 miles) are now essentially excavated, thus there 
remains only 38 kilometres (23.5 miles) to be traversed by the aid of locks; and 
here also so much actual work has been done that no visitor can pass over the line 
without appreciating that the canal can no longer be regarded as an experiment. 

Of these 38 kilometres between Bohio and Miraflores, the first 28 (13. G4 miles) 
extending from- Bohio to Oliispo will traverse a vast lake 5,500 hectares (13,585 
acres) in extent, created in the valley of the Chagres by a dam at Bohio. Its level 
above the sea will range between a minimum of 16 metres (52.48 ft.) and a maxi- 
mum of 20 metres (65.60 ft.), the normal level being 17 metres (55.76 ft.). A reser- 
voir of 150 million culjic metres (52,950 million cu. ft.) is thus jirovided to con- 



434 TllK I'AXA.MA CANAL. 

trol in part the floods of the river. Access to the lake will be furnished by two 
double locks at Bohio. 

There thus will remain to be considered only the 16 kilometres (10 miles) 
lying between Obispo, where the canal leaves the Chagres Eiver and Mirallores, 
where sea-level is reached. This section includes the continental divide at the Cule- 
bra, approached on the side of the Atlantic by the valley of the Obispo, a tributary 
of the Chagres, and on the Pacific by the valley of the Eio Grande. The great 
economic probleni to solve has been to determine the most advantageous level for 
the bottom of the canal between these two points, with a view to afford the best 
balance between the coast and the lime of constructing the locks and dams on the 
one hand and deep cutting on the other. 

This problem, with its adjuncts of how to best supply the summit level during 
the dry season, how to regulate the floods of the Chagres during the rainy season, 
and how to provide hydraulic power for lighting and operating the canal at all 
seasons, has been most thoroughly stutlied on the sjmt by the new company since its 
organization in 1894. Space is lacking to detail the trial excavations, aggregating 3 
million cubic metres, the surveys, the borings, the gaugings of the water courses and 
the many other details which have been investigated in the most elaborate manner. 
Suffice it to say that, after comparative estimates of IG variants, the Comite Tech- 
nique has advised the adoption of a level of 20.75 metres (68 ft.) above mean tide, 
which, should experience in the active prosecution of the work render it expedient, 
will admit of modification, either by adding two more locks, raising the level of 
the cut to 29.5 metres (97 ft.), or of suppressing one or perhaps two locks, and thus 
reducing it to 10 metres (33 ft.). 

This definitive plan, placing the bottom of the canal at a level of 20.75 metres, 
involves two double locks at Obispo, raising the water surface at the summit level 
to a maximum of 31.25 metres (102.5 ft.) and a mininuun of 29.75 metres (97.58 
ft.); one double lock at Paraiso dropping these levels to 23.25 metres (76.26 ft.) and 
22.25 metres (72.98 ft.), two double locks at Pedro-lligucl, dropping them to 6.25 
metres (20.5 ft.) and 5.25 metres (18.22 ft.); and a tidal lock at Miraflores, where 
the water levd varies between 3 metres, or 10 ft. above, and 3 metres below mean 
tide. (On the Atlantic side the tidal oscillation is only a few inches, and no such 
provision is needful.) The length of these levels in every case exceeds 2 kilometres 
(1.21 miles), thus avoiding trouble from oscillations due to lockages. In reference 
to the deep cutting at Culebra — the bugbear of former days — it is only needful to 
say that the excavation has already been carried belo.w the level of the soft upper 
strata, which gives so nuuh trouble by sliding, and is now and will continue to be 



THE PANAJIA CANAL. 



435 



iu an indurated clay schist, requiring blaf^ting, and passing to veritable rock. Se- 
rious trouble need no longer be apprehended here. This problem has been studied 
most thoroughl)' by the new company — involving the removal of about 2 million 
cubic metres of material, the sinking of many pits and borings, and the construction 
at the worst point of a tunnel 210 metres long (689 ft.) at a level of 41 metres 
(134.5 ft.). 

In locating the line of the canal, great care has been taken to avoid abrupt 
curves. A minimum radius of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft.) is adopted for the central 
cut, and of 3,000 metres (9,840 ft.) for the rest of the line, except near Bohio, where 
radii of 2,500 metres and 2,000 metres (6,560 ft.) occur in enlargements having a 
bottom width of 62 metres (203.4 ft.), and near Obispo, where one radius of 1,700 
metres (5,576 ft.) occurs with a bottom width of 80 metres (262.4 ft.). Even with 
the large standard curves adopted, suitable enlargements will be provided to render 
the route perfect in this important detail, in respect to which it is more favored 
bv nature than either Kiel or ilanchester, as appears from the following figures: 



■ Canals - 



Man- 
chester. 

Total length, kilos 54 

Minimum radius, metres 571 

Normal radius, metres 

Length, straight 63% 

Curvature: 

2,500 metres or more 15% 

Less than 2,500 metres 22% 

2.000 metres or more 27% 

Less than 2,000 metres 10% 



Kiel. 
9S.6 
1,000 



63% 



29% 
8% 



Pana- 
ma. 

74.5 
1,700 
2,500* 
3,000t 

57% 

Ufa 

2% 
427o 

1% 



Nicara- 
gua. 

2S4 



1,220§ 
l,311t 



*Central. tElsewhere. §Eastern divide. JWestern divide. 

The cross-section to be given the canal varies in different localities, as shown 
in the following table: The depth is uniforndy 9 metres (29.52 ft.); and the side 
slopes usually 3 base to 2 height in earth, and 2 base to 3 height in rocky cuts. 
In respect to berms and revetments, the latest practice, as recommended by the 
recent International Congress of Engineers at Brussels, will be followed. 

Earth- 
Section, 
sq. m. 

Colon to Bohio 406.5 

Lake Bohio (minimum) 571.5 

Summit level 379.5 

Paraiso to Pedro Miguel 406.5 

Pedro Miguel to Miraflores 406.5 

Miraflores to La Boca* 720.0 

Bay of Panama (low tide) 693.0 





Rocky 


cuts 


Bottom 




Bottom 


width. 


Section, 


width. 


metres. 


sq. m. 


metres. 


30 


380.2 


34 


50 


531.0 


53 


36 


379.5 


36 


30 


380.2 


34- 


30 


380.2 


34 


30 






50 







*uow tide. 



4-M THE PANAMA CAXAL. 

Enlargements GOO metres (1,0G8 ft.) long anil GO metres (19G.8 ft.) wide at 
Ijottom, to cnalile vessels to pass each otlier, will lie provided in the canal at intervals 
of about 8 kilometres (4.9G miles); hut immediately above and below the locks 
these dimensions will fje raised to 700 metres (2,296 it.), and G2 metres (203.4 ft.). 

Tlie Locks. — The locks, all founded on rock, are to be double, the larger cham- 
ber having a serviceable length of 225 metres (738 ft.), a width of 25 metres (82 ft.), 
and a depth of 9.5 metres (31.1G ft.) at the sides, and 10 metres (32.8 ft.) at the 
middle. The smaller chamber has the same serviceable length, with intermediate 
gates to reduce it to 130 metres (42G.4 ft.) when desired; a width of 18 metres 
(59.04 ft.); and the same depth as the other. The larger will be constructed first, 
together with the foundations and head of the smaller, thus permitting the latter 
to be completed after opening the canal to tratlic. The maximum lift has been iixed 
at 9 metres (29.5 ft.), except at Bohio, where provision for 10 metres (32.8 ft.) will 
be made, for use during extreme floods of the Chagres, which last only for a few 
hours. 

The gates will be pivoted single leaf type, and water will be supplied by pijies 
buried in the lock floors and delivering on each side and throughout the whole 
length of the chamber, the flow being regulated by valves of the low level cylindrical 
pattern. Entrance to the chambers from I'ither direction will be facilitated Ijy cril) 
piers, GO metres long, with detached heads to protect the structure against shocks. 

The Dams. — There will be six dams, five located on the line of the canal at 
I3uhio, at Obispo, at Paraiso. at Pedro-JIiguel and at Miraflores, and one at Alha- 
juela, IG kilometres (10 miles) above, on the upper Chagres. Of these only the 
first and last need be considered, as the other four are minor affairs presenting no 
engineering difficulties (three of them arc to be of masonry and one of earth). 

The dam at Bohio will be of earth, abutting on conglomerate rock at the sides, 
and founded on a compact bed of clay, believed to be diluvial. The length of the 
crest will be 392 metres (1.2SG ft.); the extreme heiglit above the bed of the river, 
23 metres (75.4 ft.), and above the foundation 28.5 metres (93.5 ft.). The width 
at the crest w-hich rises 3 metres (10 ft.) above the highest level of the lake, will be 
15 metres (49.2 ft.); the upstream slope has a height of 1 on a base of 3, with four 
berms each 3 metres (10 ft.) wide, llie whole revetted with stone laid dry: tlie 
downstream slope has a height of 2 on a base of 3, with one berm 3 metres wide, 
and is su]iiiorted by a mass of loose rock rising to a sufTicient height to protect the 
dam if, in spite of all precautions, it should chance to be overtopped by a sudden 
flood during construction. A puddled core, and a concrete wall at the upper toe, 
will cut ofT any jiossible leakage, 'i'he mass of the dam will be of excellent material. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 437 

found in tlie close vicinity. During construction the river will be diverted through 
the rock cut for the locks, with ample provisions by reservoirs for combating larger 
floods. All the details have been carefully studied, and the project has received the 
unanimous approval of the Comite Technique. 

The dam at Alhajucla will be of concrete masonry founded on and abutting 
against compact rock. The length of crest will be 285.5 metres (936.-1: ft.); and 
the height, -41 metres (134.5 ft.) above the bed of the river and 50 metres (164 ft.) 
above the deepest part of the rock foundation. The cross-section conforms to the 
conditions -ot recent engineering practice. 

To facilitate construction, a tunnel 300 metres (984 ft.) long and 75 square 
metres (807 sq. ft.) in cross-section will be driven through the ridge to a bend of 
the river below, and a temporary dam will divert into it the minor flood discharges 
of the river. To meet the case of larger floods, the dam will be raised alternately 
on the two sides, thus allowing space for a portion to be overflowed without inter- 
rupting the work. These details have been carefully studied, and meet the approval 
of the Comite Technique. 

Engineers will recognize the immense advantages possessed liy the Panama 
route, in the matter of dam construction, over the conditions found in Nicaragua, 
where the diversion of the San Juan River is admitted to be impracticable, and 
where the foundations present extraordinary difficulties and demand an unusual 
structure quite without precedent for canal purposes. 

Regulation of the Chagres River.-^-This subject, comprising the control of 
the floods and the supply of the summit level, has received the elaborate investiga- 
tion demanded by its importance. Space is lacking for details, but the general 
features are the following: 

At Alhajuela the low water surface of the river is 28 metres (91.84 ft.) above 
sea level; at Gamboa, 14 metres (46 ft.); and at Pxiliio, metres. The mean annual 
dischajges at these three points respectively are 63 cubic metres (2,324 cu. ft.), 84 
cubic metres (2,965 cu. ft.), and 121 cubic metres (4,261 cu. ft.) per second. During 
the three low water months (February, March and A]iril) these mean volumes fall 
to 27 cubic metres (953 cu. ft.), 31 cubic metres (1,094 cu. ft.), and 39 cubic 
metres (1,376 cu. ft.), the minimum being 9 cubic metres (318 cu. ft.), 10 cubic 
metres (353 cu. ft.), and 14 cubic metres (459 cu. ft.). The maximum flood volumes 
closely estimated on the basis of the floods of 1879, the largest within the mem- 
ory of the inhabitants, is at Gamboa 2,040, cubic metres (57,539 cu. ft.) per second, 
and at Bohio 3,100 cubic metres (109,410 cu. ft.). The floods of the river, great and 
small, are of the torrential type, resulting from the heavy and widespread tempests 



438 THE PAXAMA f'AXAL. 

of the rainy season. Their dunilion is extremely short, rarely exceeding in the 
greatest floods 48 hours at Gamboa and 9G hours at Bohio. The maximum heights 
ever attained above the low water stage are about 11 metres (36.1 ft.) at Gamboa, 
and 12 metres (39.30 ft.) at Bohio. These figures, resulting from years of patient 
and careful observations, have furnished the basis for solving the two great ques- 
tions of river regulation ]iresented by the problem of the canal. 

Upon an estimate, known to be safe, of allowing 1,000 cubic metres (35,300 cu. 
ft.) per second to freely pass Gamboa and 1,200 cubic metres (42,360 cu. ft.) to 
freely pass Bohio, reservoirs to contain 100 million cubic metres (3,500,000,000 cu. 
ft.) above Alhajuela, and 150 million cul>ic metres (5,295,000,000 cu. ft.) above 
Bohio are needful to restrain the greatest known floods; and these reservoirs are 
provided by the dams already described. In no other than the flood of 1879 would 
so large volumes be demanded. 

The level of these lakes to be regulated by overflow weirs of the Stoney type, 
which have given perfect satisfaction on the Manchester Canal, and which have the 
great merit of allowing the sills to be placed below the water surface without serious- 
leakage. 

The volume of 1,0()0 cubic metres (35,300 cu. ft.) per second permitted to pass 
Alhajuela will follow the bed of the ("hagres to Lake Bohio. The volume of 1,200 
cubic metres (42,360 cu. ft.) allowed to escape from the latter, will pass by two over- 
flow weirs — one to the left of the canal discharging 500 cubic metres (17,650 eu. 
ft.) per second through the bed of the Chagres and its derivation; and the other 
at the sources of Rio Gigante discharging 700 cubic metres (24,710 cu. ft.) by a 
route also separated from the canal. 

To supply the summit level during the season of low water, the inflow of 20 
cubic metres (706 cu. ft.) ])cr second will be required. To provide 7,000 horse- 
power for lighting the canal and^ operating the gates, 15 cubic metres (530 cu. ft.) 
per second are demanded, falling 32 metres (105 ft.) at Alhajuela, and 16 jnetres 
(52.5 ft.) at Bohio, and acting on turbines driving dynamos to transmit the power 
in the form of electricity. The reservoir capacity, in excess of the low water flow 
of the Chagres, to supply these two needs, is 130 million cubic metres (4,589 million 
cu. ft.). The area of the lake above Alhajuela is 2,300 hectares (5,750 acres) at the 
level of 61 metres (200 ft.) above tide water and 3,000 hectares (7,500 acres) at the 
level of 65 metres (213 ft.), the crest being 69 metres (226 ft.), calling for a layer of 
water 9 metres (29.5 ft.) deep to contain 100 million cubic metres for flood storage 
and 130 million for low water supply. Upon this basis the capacity of the lake has 
been regulated. 



THE PAX Ail A C'AXAL. 43<> 

To transport tlie mcilful vohniie of water ("20 culiic metres per seoond) from 
Alhajuela to the sunuiiit level, a feeder 16 kilometres (10 miles) long will leave 
the lake at a level of 58 metres (190.3 ft.) above tide, and follow the left bank to a 
lateral valley, discharging gently into the summit level abont a kilometre (0.63 
miles) from the locks at Obispo. The fall between the lake and point of delivery 
will be IT metres (55.8 ft.), and the cross-section is established to carry from 25 
(882) to 40 cubic metres (1.412 en. ft.) per second, with a view to meeting all pos- 
sible contingencies of a largely increased traffic. At tlicse heights water will flow 
into the canal even if the higher summit level should finally be found to be the 
more advantageous. The feeder traverses a difficiilt region and will be costly, but, 
all details of construction have lieen successfully elaborated. 

At Lake Bohio, as already stated, a capacity of 150 million cubic metres is 
ncidtd for storage during great floods, and to assist the overflow- weirs in regu- 
lating the level during the sudden influx of smaller floods. This volume calls for a 
layer of water 3 metres (10 ft.) deep; and another metre has been added, to contain 
a reserve for supplying evaporation in the lake during the dry season. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that the hydraulic problems presented by 
this turbulent river — at one time regarded as so serious — admit of satisfactory solu- 
tion. This is hardly the case in Nicaragua, where one of the great difflculties of the 
project is the regulation of a summit level depending on that of an immense lake 
2,700 square miles in extent, receiving directly the drainage of 8,700 square miles 
of territory, together with that of 2,250 scjuare miles more through the tributaries 
of the San Juan Eiver above the dam at Ochoa; conditions which render the ordi- 
nary method of storage reservoirs wholly inapplicable. Nevertheless a delicate 
regulation of this level, and at an artificial height, is essential to avoid on the one 
hand drowning a cultivated district on the west shore, and on the other hand ex- 
posing rocks in the navigable bed of the San Juan. These difficulties are aggra- 
vated by the necessity of placing the overflow weirs near Ochoa, at a distance of 
more than 100 kilometres (62 miles) from the lake 

In this connection it may also be noted that ,n the matter of rainfall the Pan- 
ama Canal is the more fortunaie. All the dilfi ;ult excavations and works of con- 
struction, except those near Bohio, lie in the interior where the annual downfall, 
as determined by 32 years of observation, is 93 Ins., or only about 50 per cent, more 
than on our Gulf coast; while in Nicaragua, the most difficult constructions, includ- 
ing the Ochoa dam and the San Francisco embankments, lie in a district where the 
downfall, as determined from the data collected by the Nicaragua Canal Company 
(about seven years' observations), is 256 ins., or nearly three times as much. 



440 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

Estimates. — Tliis subject has received the most careful study, both in deter- 
mining quantities and unit inices. Mucli valuable data as to the latter, based on 
actual experience on the Isthmus, has been available. The cost of each different 
project, and there have been sixteen different variants, has been estimated in detail, 
and a selection between them has thus been reached intelligently. The sum needed 
for tlie \vork of construction proper is, in round numbers, $100,000,000. The ele- 
ment of time is more difficult to determine, but the volume remaining to be exca- 
vated at the Culebra being a little less than 12 million cubic metres (15,G0(J,000 eu. 
yds.), it is beHeved that ten years is a conservative estimate. 

The Nicaragua Canal. — To the general relative merits of the two canals already 
considered may be added lliat the Panama route lies in the interior of Colombia, 
while that by Nicaragua lies near the Costa Rican boundary, where hostilities are 
liable at any time to cause difficulties, as they already have done during the canal 
examination by the Walker commission last spring. Also that in respect to danger 
from possible earthquakes, which miglit easily (ause troul)le at the great locks, Pan- 
ama is by far the more safe, because no active volcano is foimd within a distance of 
at least 200 miles from it, while three lie in the close vicinity of the route of the 
Nicaragua Canal, and one within only forty miles of its western locks. Last April an 
earthquake destroyed substantial masonry buildings at Leon, only loo miles distant 
from these lock sites. 

But while it is thus easy to compare the two canals in tlieir general features, 
and to see that the route by Panama is much superior to that by Nicaragua, when 
details are considered, we are confronted by the fact that really no definite project 
can be claimed for the latter. The company's project, as revised by the Govern- 
ment Commission, of which General Ludlow was president, is shown on the accom- 
panying drawing, which may be compared with that given to illustrate the Panama 
project; but it should be noted that the latter has double the horizontal scale, thus 
failing to impress the eye, by fifty per cent., with its relative merit in respect to 
length. The data upon which th- ■• project was based were so unsatisfactory to the 
Ludlow Commission that they rep> "ted: "for obtaining the necessary data for the 
formation of a final project, eightec i months' time, covering two dry seasons, and 
an expenditure of $350,000, will be required." A new commission has been ap- 
pointed, and new surveys inaugurated; and it appears from the views of the indi- 
vidual members, as given before the select committee of the Senate in June, 1898, 
that the changes undergoing study are radical in their nature, and that, although 
some at least of the engineering difficulties which impressed the former Government 
Commission are recognized as grave, no means of avoiding them have yet been dis- 



TIIK TAXAMA CAXAL. ^11 

covered. Under these conditions it is aj)parent that confidence cannot be accorded 
to such a project; and that really there is only one canal, that of Panama, whose 
constrnction conld be judiciously undertaken at the present time. It is to be hoped 
before the Government embarks on so important a work that the relative merits 
of the two routes will be examined and judged by a commission of expert engineers, 
for it is certain that only one canal is now needed, and that that one should be the 
liest possible. 

One of the discussions of the peoj^le that has accompanied the thoughtful at- 
tention of mankind to the various schemes for the practical removal of the barrier 
between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans unbroken north of the Straits of Magellan — 
well described as an enormous canal provided by natural causes — is the compara- 
tive lieight of the water in the two oceans that are so near and yet so far, at the 
Isthmus, and this mysterious matter is treated according to the popular taste in 
"Sport, Travel and Adventure in Xcwfoundland and the West Indies," by C'apt. 
AV. P. Kennedy, P. N.; 'William lllackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London, as 
follows: 

"This opens the question as to what effect the Panama Canal will have upon 
the tides and currents of the Caribbean Sea. One would naturally suppose that the 
water in the canal would flow continually from east to west, or from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific Ocean, on account of the constant set of the current and the prevail- 
ing winds being from that direction. The difference in the height of the tide at 
Colon and Panama is very remarkable. At the former place the rise and fall of 
the tide is only three feet; whereas at Panama the difference between high and 
low water mark is, as far as I remember, nearly tweut}'. The tide is nine hours 
later at Colon than it is at Panama, so that when it is high or low water at Pan- 
ama it is half-tide at Colon. 

"As a matter of fact, I am inclined to think that in the event of what is called 
a tide-level being cut through the Isthmus — that is, a canal without locks, open to 
the ocean at either end — there would be no continuous stream of water flowing 
through the-eanal in any one direction, but the result would probably be that the 
tides would flow in from either end, meet in the middle and flow back again, as 
,may be seen in the Straits of Magellan, which, after all, is but a huge canal of 
Nature's own construction. 

"It is quite possible tliat the rush of water may be so great as to seriously inter- 
fere with the passage of ships entering the canal, in which case it will be necessary 
to form a lock at the Panama end. It may even be necessary, in view of the dift'er- 
ence in the depth of the harbors at either end, to slope the bottom of the canal from 



442 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

Colon downwards to Panama. This, according to Ma.x Adler's laughable story, * 
would have the efTect of causing the water to flow downhill, thereby draining the 
Atlantic into the Pacific Ocean! 

"But, joking apart, the tendency of the water must be to find its own level, 
and if it can be shown that the mean level of the two oceans is not identical, there 
must be a constant flow in the direction of the lowest level. 

"Now, it is not at all certain that the mean level of the Pacific and Atlantic 
oceans is the same; and it is quite possible that, owing to the rotation of the earth 
on its axis, and the formation of the land in the neighborhood of the isthmus, the 
water may be piled up on the Atlantic side and drawn away from the Pacific side. 
A glance at the map will show what I mean. And we all know how a strong breeze 
will keep a river back, or, if in the same direction as the flow of the river, will 
drive it out of a lock and thus raise the river; so this theory may not be so absurd 
after all. I leave it to those learned in such matters. 

"There is another view of the case which never struck me till now. Geologists 
are of the opinion that at one time the Isthmus of Panama was submerged, and 
South America an island. They are led to this conclusion by the totally different 
class of animals to be found in South and North America. At that time the Gulf 
stream which now warms our shores must have flowed westward through this chan- 
nel, and the British Isles were a frozen zone unsuited for human habitation. Cut 
through the isthmus, and the warm waters of the Gulf stream may to a very limited 
extent be deflected in the direction. of their former course. The effect would be 
probably no more than drawing off a kettle of water from the river Tweed, and 
the immediate effect on our climate be imperceptible; but it might to a very 
trifling extent have some influence^ — about as mueli, jicrhaps, as the endeavor to 
shampoo an elephant with a single egg! 

"I was led to this diversion from my recollect ion of the canal scheme tw<?lve 
years ago, when I was ordered to report on its feasibility. At that time there were 
no fewer tlum five schemes for connecting the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean. I 
sorted these schemes, and came to the conclusion that the only one likely to be 
attended with any success was a direct tide-level canal across the Isthmus of Pan- 
ama. I shall be disappointed if this opinion be found not to be correct." 

We avail ourselves of the official publications by the New Panama Canal Com- 
pany for details of the condition of the work done, supported by photographic 
views remarkably beautiful and instructive. First, it is desirable to look at the law. 



♦Elbow-Room. By Max Adler. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 443 

and we give Articles 5 and 6 of the Panama Canal concession of May 18, 1878, under 
which the canal is being completed: 

Art. 5. The government of the Republic hereby declares the ports at each 
end of the canal, and the waters of the latter from sea to sea, to be neutral for all 
time; and consequently, in case of war among other nations, the transit through 
the canal shall not be interrupted by such event, and the merchant vessels and indi- 
viduals of all nations of the world may enter said ports and travel on the canal with- 
out being molested or detained. 

In general, any vessel may pass freely without any discrimination, exclusion 
or preference of nationalities or persons, on payment of the dues and the observance 
of the rules established by the company for the use of the canal and its dependen- 
cies. 

Exception is to be made of foreign troops which shall not have the right to 
pass without permission from Congress, and of the vessels of nations which, being 
at war with the United States of Colombia, may not have obtained the right to 
pass through the canal at all times by public treaties wherein is guaranteed the 
sovereignty of Colombia over the Istlimus of Panama, and over the territory where- 
on the canal is to be cut, besides the immunity and neutrality of the said canal, its 
ports, bays and dependencies and the adjacent seas. 

Art. 6. The United States of Colombia reserves to themselves the right to 
pass their vessels, troops, ammunitions of war at all times and without paying any 
dues whatever. 

The passage of the canal is strictly closed to war vessels of nations at war with 
another or other nations, and which may not have acquired, by public treaty with 
the Colombian Government, the right to pass by the canal at all times. 

The United States of America is the only nation with which Colombia has 
ever made a treaty wherein is guaranteed to Colombia the neutrality of the Isthmus 
of Panama and the sovereignty of Colombia over said territory, as above provided; 
and. therefore, it is the only nation having the "special or remarkable advantages" 
provided for by the treaty. 

Under this treaty Colombia granted concession to the Panama Railroad, which 
railroad was thereupon constrticted and for forty-three years has been in continuous 
operation. On several noteworthy occasions the United States has protected the 
railroad property, in compliance with the obligations of this treaty. 

Also, in contemplation of the provisions of this treaty, Colombia granted in 
1878 the concession for the Panama Canal now owned by the new Panama Canal 
Company: and like protection to the canal, as to the railroad, will, of course, be 



444 THE I'ANA.MA tAXAL. 

assured by the United States under this treaty. Over $150,000,000 have been 
actually invested in the Panama Canal works, two-fifths of the entire canal work 
have been completed, and the balance is under active construction, in firm reliance 
upon the protection assured by the United States under said treaty to the "Isthmus 
of Panama from its southernmost e;.tremity until the boundary of Costa Rica." 

The present organization of the new Panama Canal Company is as follows: 

Executive Officers: J. Bonnardel, President; Maurice Hutin, Director-Gen- 
eral; Edward Lampre, Secretary. 

P.oard of Directors: ilr. Bonnardel, President, director of the Western Rail- 
road Company of France; llr. Baillet, ex-Judge of the Commercial Court of Or- 
leans; Jlr. Brolcmann, direct^jr of the Credit Lyonnais, and also president of the 
Franco-Canadian Credit Foncier; Mr. Chanove, managing director of the Steel and 
Iron Works of Huta and Bankova, in Russia; ilr. Jonquiere, inspector of Public 
Lands and Works, and director of the Realty Company of Lyons, France; Mr. 
Lebegue, director of the Bank Societe Generale and ex-director of tlw Bank of 
France (Branch for Xancy); Mr. Meliodon, director of the Comptoir Xational d"Es- 
eonipte of Paris and of the Credit Foncier of France; Mr. Ramet, ex-president of 
the Commercial Court of Eennes, France; ilr. De St. Quentin, director of the 
Credit Industrial Cduimcrcial; Jlr. Souchon, director of the Coal Mining Company 
of Saint Ftienne. 

Ccmmercial Representative at New York: Xavier Boyard, 4.5 A\'all Street, Xew 
Yoik City. 

General Counsel: Sullivan & Cromwell, T'nitcd States Trust Co. Building, 45 
Wall Street, Xew York City. 

The photographic illustrations belong in ]iii-turesque America, and are most 
effective in jilacing before the eye that wliicli lias been done. The illustrations 
were made from photographs (not merely diawings) of various sections of the work, 
taken the latter part of the year 1897 and in the year 1898, and are intended to 
convey to the reader some idea of the ]u-esent condition and progress of work on the 
canal. 

The ]ilate showing a portion of the comjileted canal, with a boat in tlie fore- 
ground, illustrates the condition of the canal for fourteen miles from the Atlantic,, 
inland. This ]iortion of the canal is navigable, as is also about four miles from the 
Pacific, inland. 

The various cuts of the Culebra coiniiletcly refiUe the charge that it was im- 
possible to make a suitable excavation at this ])oint. 

The otlu'i- ilhistraiions show the progress of the work and the character of the 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 445 

lilaiit employed in its execution. Most of tliis niacliinery and plant is of the most 
aiiproved American design and mannfactiire. 

MAP AND PEOFILE. • 

The profile shows the three plans all equally feasible and abmit equal in cost, 
but differing in time required for execution. Level '30.75 has been adopted, sub- 
jected to further reduction of the number of locks if found desirable in comple- 
tion. 

It also illustrates the large proportion of work already completed, and clearly 
indicates, by dotted lines, the original surface line (indicated in black) and the cut- 
ting down of the same to the present levels (indicated in red). 

The map shows the route of the canal from ocean to ocean, and the line of the 
Panama Eailroad, which is contiguous. 

Internationa! Technical Commission, composed of engineers of United States, 
France, Russia, England, Germany and Colombia: Mr. A. Eobaglia, General In- 
spector of Bridges and Boads (France), retired, President; *Mr. Bouvier, General 
Inspector of Bridges' and Roads (France), retired. Secretary; Brig-Gen. Henry L. 
Al)bot, Corps of Engineers, F. S. Army, retired; Mr. E. Castel, General Inspector 
of Mines (France), retired; Mr. V. Daymard, Chief Engineer of Transatlantiqiie 
Co. (France); Mr. Fargue, General Inspector of Bridges and Roads (France), re- 
tired: Mr. A. Fetley, Chief Engineer, .\qiicduct Commissioners, New York City,, 
T'nited States America; Mr. Fulscher, "Conseiller intinie" at the Department of 
Public Works of Prussia, formerly Engineering Director at the works of the Kiel 
Canal (Prussia): Mr. Hersent, Civil Engineer (France); ilr. W. Henry Hunter, 
Chief Engineer of the Manchester Canal Co. (England); Mr. Koch, Councillor De- 
l^artment of Public Works, Director of the Technical Academy of Darmstadt, for- 
merly Engineering Member of the Imperial Commission for the Kiel Canal 
(Prussia); Mr. Jules ^lartin. Inspector General of Ponts et Chaussees, retired 
(France); Mr. C. Skalkowski, formerly Director of Mines for the Department of 
Agriculture and Lands (Russia); *Mr. Sosa, Chief Engineer of Colombian States 
(South America). 

Brief history of the predecessor company, the old Panama Canal Company (the 
Universal Interoceanic Canal Company), 1880-1888: 

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. 
The wides]iread interest in the financial failure of the old Panama Company 



♦Recently deceased. 



446 TIIH PANAMA CAXAL. 

can be explained by the univeisal character of the undertaking, the celebrity of the 
man who was at its head, and tlie importance of the interests involved. 

In France this failure, unfortunately, served at the time certain political pur- 
poses; therefore public attention was diverted from tlic undertaking itself. 

It must, however, be conceded that the construction of the interoceanic canal 
is a commercial enterprise like any other. For its successful planning and execution 
-every detail must first be carefully studied. The solution to be arrived at should 
not be based upon preconceived ideas, however attractive these may appear. Such 
a method is dangerous, especially so in an undertaking, wliicli in its greatness, diffi- 
culties and complexity, has no precedent. 

An impartial examination of the financial failure of the company founded by 
;Mr. De Lesseps discloses a number of causes which had more or less grave conse- 
quences, speaking either from a financial or technical point of view, but all relate 
to an initial or fundamental cause, that is, from its beginning there was an omission 
to make careful and thorough surveys to determine the character and cost of the 
work, as well as the time necessary to complete it. 

It would be imjust, however, to underestimate the importance of the work ac- 
complished, and the results obtained, by the old company. They will be fully pre- 
sented later herein. 

THE INTERXATIOXAL CONGRESS HELD AT FARIS 1\ MAY, 1879. 

Notwithstanding its extreme interest, it is not possible even to summarize the 
history of the discoveries, exjjlorations and plans of maritime canals on the Amer- 
ican Isthmus prior to the year 18T9, at which time an international congress met in 
Paris and, after an examination of the several plans which had been presented, 
adopted the following conclusion: 

"The Congress is of the opinion that the cutting of an international sea level 
canal, so desirable in the interests of commerce and of navigation, is possible, and 
that this maritime canal, in order to provide the indispensable facility for access 
and use that a passgge of this kind should offer, ought to be constructed from the 
Gulf of Limon (Colon) to the Bay of Panama." 

The conclusion of the Technical Commission of this Congress were slightly less 
formal, and were thus expressed: 

"It is tlic o]iinion of the Technical Commission tliat the Interoceanic Canal 
should be constructed from the Gulf of Limon to the Bay of Panama, and this 
Commission specially recommends the building of a sea level canal along this route." 





THEATRE AT SAN JOSE. COSTA nlCA.. 



SCHOOL HOUSE IN SAN JOSE, COSTA RICA. 





VIEW ON SAN JUAN RIVER, COSTA RICA 



PIER AT {,l;l ^ inwN, XICARAOtJA. 




< 



■X. 

o 






THE PANAMA CANAL. 449 

Reference to the debates whicli took i>lacc in the Congress of 1879 discloses 
that although a great majority of its members recognized the superiority of the 
proposed ]ilnii (Colon-Panama) many among them, and not the least eminent and 
experienced, declare, that if the realization of the plan of a sea level canal was to be 
urged because it was most conducive to the great growth of traffic, as well as to 
the safety and rapidity of its passage, it was to be feared that this would present 
too many difficulties, or too great a ccst, and that a canal with locks would fully 
satisfy the. wants of navigation. 

No doubt the personal opinion of Mr. De Lesseps, the originator of the Suez 
sea level canal, had great weight in the decision of the Congress. Mr. De Lesseps 
had always asserted that the canal between the Atlantic and Pacific should be con- 
structed at a constant level. 

"We are compelled to admit that the completed surveys and work accomplished 
in the Isthmus of Panama undeniably demonstrates that Mr. De Lesseps' ideal is 
now practically susceptible of realization; but Mr. De Lesseps was entirely mis- 
taken concerning the conditions of execution in the first attempt he made. 



The Congress of 1879 had calculated that the time for the finishing of the 
canal would be at least twelve years, and it fixed the probable expense of the under- 
taking at $214,000,000. Supposing that the interest on capital during construction 
amounted to $26,000,000, there would be a total expenditure of $240,000,000. 

Mr. De Lesseps, in the beginning of the year 1880, went to the Isthmus of 
Panama with a company of engineers for the purpose of completing the surveys 
which had been submitted the preceding year to the International Congress. The 
estimate of the construction work proper authorized by this Commission amounted 
to $166,800,000. 

At the same time this Commission expressed the opinion that with good and 
judicious organization the work might be concluded in eight years. Mr. De Les- 
seps believed it to be possible to reduce this estimate of expenditures. 

It was under these conditions that the work was commenced in 1881. After 
employing two or three years in making more careful and thorough surveys, and 
in preparatory work, the real difficulties of the undertaking began to be under- 
stood. 

It must be remembered that everything had to be created, at an enormous ex- 
pense and very slowly, in a country entirely lacking in natural resources, and sit- 
uated at a great distance from the source of supplies. 



■150 THE PANAMA CAXAL. 

It nui!it l>e recalled, also, tliat there had been great vrnnt of foresight, in pro- 
jjortion to the importance of the work, and this explains the grave consequences 
which ensued. Notwithstanding the existence of the Panama Eailroad along the 
line of the canal at nearly every portion of it, the first installation was extremely 
tedious and costly. Finally it was necessary to construct a large number of build- 
ings to house about 15,000 employes and workmen; hospitals, stores and workshops 
had to be erected. All of this plant and the preparation of the equipment had al- 
ready cost enormous sums, and required a considerable length of time before the 
actual excavation of the work could be commenced. These special difficulties every- 
where encountered in the Isthmus were inevitable. It was then impossible to 'find 
proper workmen in the neighborhood of the work. Considerable effort was neces- 
sary to obtain laborers from other countries and bring them to the Isthmus, and, 
in proportion as the work grew in extent, salaries increased, as well as the cost of 
everything. 

At that time the unhealthfulness of the climate, due, iu a large measure, to the 
excavation and uplifting of the surface of the ground, also interfered with the 
progress of the work. 

To-day, on the Isthmus of Panama, the sanitary conditions have much im- 
proved because of the opening of the canal, and also on account of the deep exca- 
vations below the surface, and no difficulty whatever is now felt from the climate, 
while labor is readily obtained from Jamaica. 

The construction of an interoceanie canal presented problems extremely dilTi- 
cult of 'Solution, since, by the very nature of things, the indispensable elements for 
all preliminary investigations were lacking. To definitely solve these problems the 
results of many years of observation and experience was required. Just this very 
filing occurred at Panama, ]iarticularly in the excavation of the large cut at Culebra. 
The first surveys indicated the mountain to be solid rock, while, on the contrary, 
a layer of clayey soil was very soon encountered (the crumbling away of which has 
been greatly exaggerated). At the jiresent time the excavations of the new com- 
pany, which have been carried to a very considerable depth, prove that the entire 
formation, with the exception of the surface layer, consists of a fairly hard rock of 
such nature and arrangement that there is no fear of crumbling of the embank- 
ment and consetiuent filling up of llic cut, no matter what its depth may be. It 
is, of course, impossible to enter here into the details of the work done by the old 
company. It is sufficient to know that, when the old company at length decided 
to build a lock canal, it was financially impossible to do so, because its credit was so 
greatly imjiaircd that it could not obtain the necessary financial support. In 1889 



THE PANAMA lAXAL. 451 

a receiver was appointed by the French court and with unlimited powers — partic- 
ularly to transfer or to assign to any new company all or any portion of the com- 
pany's assets. 

The receipts of the old company from the sale of its bonds and stock amounted, 
in round figures, to $260,000,000. 

The items, both of receipt and expenditure, are now a matter of record as a part 
of the receivership and may be found on the files of the court and in the reports 
of the experts aj)pointed thereon. 

These figures are most suggestive. They sho^v, in tlie first place, that the 
expenditures actually made upon the Isthmus amounted to $156,4:00,000, and that, 
of this, the cost of excavation and embankment proper amounted to $88,600,000. 
In the second place, the reports show the great importance of expenditures inci- 
dental to and connected with the work. Xo doubt such last-mentioned expenses 
were to some extent extravagant, but, nevertheless, it must be admitted that, for 
the most part, they were necessary and will be utilized in the completion of the 
work by the new company. 

To properly appreciate these expenses the plans and profiles must be carefully 
followed. 

The facts Just given are deduced from statements made by a special commis- 
sion appointed by the receiver of the old company. In all its appraisals and valua- 
tions this commission has evinced extreme discrimination and fairness. 

After having made these statements this commission desired to determine the 
actual value of what had been done by the old company, and upon this point states: 

"The enormous amount of material at hand ready to be utilized, the great num- 
ber of works established, lands received and to be received, labor actually expended, 
experience gained, supplies laid in, preliminaries mapped out, including the right 
of way, are worth to the new company at least 450,000,000 francs ($00,000,000)." 

OEGAXIZATIOX OF THE XEW PAXAMA CAXAL COMPAXY OCTO- 

BEE 20, 1894. 

The receiver asked for and olitaincd from the Colombian Government two suc- 
cessive extensions of the concession, extending the time for the completion of the 
canal to October, 1904. (The Government of Colombia has just granted an addi- 
tional extension of six years more.) 

Finally, in 1894, the court and those having legal charge of the interests of 



452 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

the old company made an impartial examination of the situation and came to the 
following conclusions: 

First — That the work actually accomplished by the old company in the Isth- 
mus was very large, substantial and available. 

Second — That notwithstanding an interregnum of four years, the work pre- 
viously accomjilished was in a satisfactory condition. 

Third — That the locations occupied, and the plant on the Isthmus, had been 
well cared for by the receiver, and were sufficient for the continuation and accom- 
plishment of the work without extensive and expensive preparation. 

Fourth — That the climatic dangers, the difficulties of the undertaking, and the 
cost necessary for its accomplishment had been grossly exaggerated. 

It was therefore resolved to reorganize the old company, under new manage- 
ment and new conditions. 

On the one hand the work was to be renewed and continued. 

On the other hand to ascertain, by investigation and the widest experience, 
whether the construction of the canal could be completed under reasonable condi- 
tions of time and money. 

It was in this spirit that the New Panama Canal was organized in October, 
1894, under the general laws of France. Its constitution and method of operation 
were rigorously restricted. 

From the financial point of view it was tliought advisable that a large number 
of financial institutions of France should purchase the stock of the new company, 
and should be represented in the administration of its affairs by their officers, so as 
to insure for the new company the hearty support of these great financial interests, 
as well as the high character and large experience of the gentlemen com])osing the 
board. The stock was declared by the charter to be non-negotiable until tlu' final 
technical plans were prepared and adopted. The company was organized with a 
cash capital of 65,000,000 francs, or $13,000,000, actually jiaid in. 

Thus were assured to the undertaking the sympathies and support of the finan- 
cial world. All speculation in the stock of the company before the adoption of 
final plans was prevented, as the stock, being non-negotiable until said event, could 
not be registered and quoted at the Exchange. 

The Board of Directors is composed of entirely new and independent members, 
no one of whom had any official relation to the old company. 

The new company has been officially recognized by the United States of Co- 
lombia, and its titles and concessions have been fully confirmed by that Govern- 
ment. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 453 

OPERATIONS OF THE NEW COMPANY. 

The new company, according to its charter, carefully considered all plans thai 
could attract the attention of serious-minded and practical men, and carefully com- 
pared the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

This careful method demanded an exact and complete knowledge of the local 
conditions and the character of the soil where the work was to be carried on, and 
also full knowledge of the ways and means for its execution; in a word, a thorough 
knowledge of all the fundamental facts which enter into the undertaking. 

The new company already had the benefit of the results of the preliminary 
investigations made by the old company and by the receiver. It completed these 
by carrying on extensive operations upon the work so as to become thoroughly ac- 
quainted with the countrj', while also forwarding the completion of the canal itself. 
These operations, long and laborious as they were, accomplished not only the solu- 
tion of the general problem, but a practical settlement and disposition of numerous 
lesser problems. 

The new company resolved to carry on the excavations in such an extensive 
manner that there would remain no hypothetical conditions concerning future work. 
The work thus carried on for this purpose was also a part of the necessary work on 
the canal, and therefore forms a portion of the cut of the canal itself. 

The time devoted to these investigations and experiences was more than three 
years, to which must be added the investigations and experiences of the past. But 
time has not been lost, for it is ai> infallible principle in large undertakings that, 
the more detailed and careful the surveys, the surer and quicker the execution of 
the work. It may also be added that important public works executed too hastily 
without sufficient preliminary surveys to determine what is necessary to be done 
and what is impossible, inevitably lead to grave mistakes and delays, if not to dis- 
aster. 

A great number of plans have been considered, but from the beginning it was 
resolved not to deviate from the following principles: 

First — That every plan involving any difficulty impossible of execution in the 
allotted time, and within the limit of expense, should be rejected. 

Second — That in the solution of the technical and detailed problems of the 
work only those plans should be considered which had the support of experience, 
and every new idea which might tend to mislead should be rigidly excluded. 

Third — That in arriving at the proper solution it was necessary to consider the 
particular place where the work was to be executed, and also to make due allowance 



454 THE PAXAJIA CAXAL. 

for the influence of the climate of the region. Hence the necessity of undertaking 
only work not reciuiriug exceptional conditions. 

The present company, after acquiring in October, 1894, the canal works, plant, 
machinery, concessions, stocks and other assets of every description of the old com- 
pany, realized at the outset that the most judicious way to employ its capital was to 
enter into an entirely new study of the engineering features of the undertaking, 
and also to begin, on a substantial scale, such an amount of work as would set at 
rest beyond question all doubts as to the quality of materials to be encountered (not 
only on the surface but also in the underground strata which it was expected to 
reach in all the excavations), while at the same time constructing the canal itself. 

The new company, accordingly, with the aid of the plant at hand and of such 
new machinery as it was found expedient to purchase, went to work with a force 
of several thousand men and put in the field a large engineering force. 

SYXOPSTS OF THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE CANAL WORKS AND 
THE PLAN OF CONSTRUCTION, AS UNANIMOUSLY AP- 
PROVED BY THE INTERNATIONAL TECH- 
NICAL CO:\[MISSION. 

Line of Route. Two-fifths of entire canal works now actually completed, and 
balance under active construction with 4,000 workmen and large force of engi- 
neers. 

Although the skill of its own board of engineers is worthy of the highest confi- 
dence, the new company, out of abundant caution, and in order to place beyond 
doubt the final conclusions, caused to be appointed an 

INTERNATIONAL TECIIXRAL COMMISSION, 

composed of engineers selected from different nationalities, a course which assures 
to the conijiauy the benefit of the widest experience, the severest judgment and most 
independent conclusions. 

The commission is composed of the most I'uiinent engineers of the United 
States, France, England, Germany, Russia and Cnlonibia, all of whom have been 
connected with works of magnitude, and each of whom is distinguished for the high- 
est character and experience. As to all traffic, statistical and economic questions, 
the new company also established a Special Commission, presided over by Monsieur 
Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, the eminent economist and a member of the Institute of 
France. 



THE PANAMA CAXAL. 45o 

The members of this commission (whose names appear on a preceding page) 
are the most distinguished and ahic men in tlieir profession, and it is self-evident 
that no one of them would compromise his reputation and honor, acquired througli 
a long life of eminent service, by formulating conclusions iipon unfounded, incom- 
plete, superficial or uncertain information, nor such as would fail to stand the se- 
verest tests. 

This commission was organized in February, 189G, and besides individual exam- 
ination, study and correspondence; committee work on special subjects; personal 
inspection on the Isthmus through a committee of their number; full discussion 
and frequent exchange of views; study of all preceding plans and the daily develop- 
ment work upon the Isthmus, this commission has held over one hundred recorded 
sessions. 

They have also with great care and large expense made most careful observa- 
tions — continuing over a period of two years^ — of the Chagres Eiver for the purpose 
of ascertaining the various conditions of this river at all times and under all condi- 
tions, that they might have definite and reliable data upon which to base their con- 
clusions respecting its treatment. 

This eminent commission of engineers reached its final and unanimous con- 
clusion on November 16, 1898, embodied in the elaborate 

EEPORT OF THE IXTERXATIOXAL TECHXICAL COMMISSIOX. 

which has been adopted by the company, and under which the work of construction 
is proceeding. These conclusions, signed by every member of the commission, 
establish the entire feasibility, practicability and cost of completing the canal. It 
is based upon years of continuous study and testing of every element. Different 
plans, equally practicable, but varying in probable cost, have been studied. Many 
months have been spent in preparing, revising and studying each of them. This 
work has not been done hastily and superficially. These eminent engineers, chosen 
especially for their eminence in special departments of engineering work, have 
studied the questions in all their details — technical, climatic, physical, geologic and 
economic. Each member rests his reputation on his signature to the report. 

The report of the commission is probably the most authoritative document 
ever presented on an engineering subject, prepared by them, as it has been, with 
the greatest care, after the most thorough and competent investigation and exami- 
nation, with most exhaustive surveys before them respecting every foot of the 



456 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

ground to be treated, and by the most experienced and eminent engineers of five 
different nations. 

This report was, on December 2, 1898, delivered by the new company to the 
President of the United States for the use of the Government. 

The following described plans are ba.*ed on said report: 

The Panama Canal extends from Colon, on the Atlantic, to Panama, on the 
Pacific Ocean. 

Its total length is 46.2 miles, including 3.35 miles dredged in the Pacific to deep 
water. 

The great chain of the Cordilleras, which runs along the Isthmus, presents 
at the point selected a pass which is not too high to preclude the construction of the 
canal, while the parts contiguous to both are low. 

The profile of the canal consequently presents, in the central part, a high sum- 
mit, from which the ground slopes gradually (altliough irregularly) towards the low 
grounds adjacent to the sea. 

Starting from Colon, on the Atlantic coast, is situate the new city of Chris- 
topher Columbus, the location of the works and plant of the Canal Company. From 
the little port of Folk River we follow the canal for about 11.8 miles. This 
canal is navigable, varying in depth from 16.4 to 29.5 feet. From the 11. T to 
the 26.7 mile, excavation is proceeding the entire distance, and the embankments 
consequently thrown up gradually rise from the level of the sea to about the height 
of 49.2 feet, with cuts such as the one of l?ohio, which is 131.2 feet in depth, 
and those of San Pablo and Matachin, which are from 82 to 98.5 feet. 

From the 2Sth mile rises the central mass of earth called the Cordillera. A 
good deal of work has been done between the 28tli and 33d mile. Very near here 
Culebra is reached, where the labor has been much diminished by the character 
of the upper layers. The cut begun by tJie old company has been continued by 
the new company, and now has an average depth of 164 feet. 

The slope towards the Pacific Ocean is now reached, and here the declivity 
of the land becomes great. Work is being carried on the entire distance. The 
height of the embankment varies from 49 or 65 feet to about 196.5 feet, diminish- 
ing at the 40th mile to from G.5 to 16.4 feet. From this point to the Pacific 
the canal has been completed to the depth of from 6.5 to 26.2 feet. From mile 
42.8 to the great depths near Naos, at mile 45.9, the canal is completed so as to. 
be navigable to a depth of from 16.5 to 29.5 feet, which was recently excavated by 
the new company to an average depth of 27.8 feet below the level of the sea. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 457 

THE WORK ALREADY DONE CONSTITTTTES FULLY TWO-FIFTHS OF 

THE ENTIRE WORKS. 

The portions of the canal adjacent to the sea have been excavated, and, 
although the Chagres River has been for years flowing through them, they can be 
partially utilized. 

At the present time the topography of all the grounds involved in the project, 
and the character of the materials to be encountered, are accurately known and 
delineated; deep and extensive excavations, as well as numerous soundings and 
borings, have made known the subterranean strata underlaying the surface, and 
by those means no doubt is left as to the soundness of the materials through 
which the canal is to be dug to great depths and on which the foundations of the 
locks, dams and other structures are to be established. 

Sixteen different plans have been worked out in detail, including estimates 
of cost and of time needed for construction. 

It is on these complete data furnished by the local engineers and by the 
observations of its own members on the Isthmus that the International Technical 
Commission has based its conclusions, embodied in the plans which will be out- 
lined later herein. 

The original purpose of the old company was to build a canal without locks, 
freely open from ocean 'to ocean, but after several years of work the plan was 
abandoned, owing to the enormous excavation necessary to cut through the central 
mass of the mountains (the Culebra) and the difHculty and expense of properly 
taking cai-e of the occasional torrential flow of the River Chagres. 

The alternate plan was to reduce materially the depth of the central excava- 
tion and to establish therein a system of locks, to be fed from the Chagres River. 
This is the plan adopted by the new company. 

From what precedes, it may be seen that three principal proljleras presented 
themselves — i. e.: 

First. — The determination of the depth to which the central mass must be 
excavated and of the number and height of the locks to be built. 

Second. — The designing of the ]n-oper methods for the regulation of the flow 
of the Chagres River. 

Third. — The feeding of the canal. 

I. — Depth of Excavation (altitude of the suniniit level of the canal bottom). 

The number of locks determined liy tlu' depth of such excavation (altitude 
of canal bottom). 

It is obvious that the deeper the excavation the more time will be required 



458 THE PANAMA CANAL. 

for the work and the less locks will be needed; also, that too shallow an excava- 
tion, while requiring less time, would require more locks. 

The necessity of feeding the canal from the Chagres Elver, and of providing 
proper storage for its freshets, are also an element in the determination of the 
altitude of its bottom level. 

This complex problem is obviously capable of several solutions, and before 
reaching a final decision the International Technical Commission studied a num- 
ber of alternate plans, which, after proper consideration, were reduced to three, 
in which the altitudes of the summit level of the canal are fixed at 29.50 meters 
(96.78 feet), 20.75 meters (68.08 feet), and 10 meters (32.81 feet), respectively, 
above mean water in the Atlantic. 

Of these three plans the commission, after mature deliberation and under the 
present condition of experience furnished liy the work already done, ha.s decided 
that 20.75 meters (68.08 feet) above the sea, with four locks on each slope, as the 
altitude at which the bottom of the canal should be placed to make the time 
necessary for excavation of the balance the most probable time required for the 
construction of the locks and dams — a result obviously desirable for the proper 
conduct of the undertaking. 

If, however, it be foimd during the construction of the work that the excava- 
tion may require more time, the bottom can be placed at- the elevation 96.78 feet 
(in which case one lock would be added to present plans on each side of the canal); 
or if, on the contrary, it be found that the work can be done more expeditiously 
than exj)ected, the bottom can be placed at the elevation 32.81 feet (in which 
case one lock on each side w'ould be omitted from the present plant); and in 
either case the change could be done without interfering with the general plan, 
provided a decision be not too long delayed. 

The plan herein described is based on the ])lan adopted by the International 
Technical Commission with an altitude of 68.08 feet (20.75 meters) above mean 
sea level. 

The summit level, 118.11 feet wide at bottom and 318.35 feet long, is in 
the deep cut of the Culebra; the upper strata are clayey with easy slopes; below 
this is a rocky formation, which is to be excavated in wide steps. In the canal 
prism a berme is left under water. 

Tlie next level, from Obispo to Bohio, with a bottom width of 164 feet, is 
13.37 miles long. 

At Bohio another group of two double locks empties into the Atlantic level, 
which has a width of 98.4 to 111.5 feet on bottom and a length of 14.84 miles. 



THE PANAMA CAXAL. 459 

On the Pacific side, the summit level terminates at Paraiso with one double 
lock. 

The adjacent level from Paraiso to Pedro Miguel is 7,9G3 feet long, and ends 
at the latter place with two double locks. 

The next level, from Pedro Miguel to Jlirafiorcs, is 7,930 feet long, and 
terminates there with one double lock. 

The Pacific level, adjacent to the latter, is -l.Gg miles long to La Boca, beyond 
which a channel 3.36 miles long is excavated to deep water. 

The depth of water in the locks is to be generally 29.5 feet and is not to 
exceed 32.8 feet. 

All the locks are to be doul>le, the working length being for both 738.23 feet. 
The width of one of the twin locks is to be S2.02 feet, and the widtli of the other 
is 59.05 feet (with an intermediate gate), although, in the opinion of several 
members of the commission, it might be preferable to build both locks of the width 
of 82.02 feet. 

It is' designed that the slopes of the canal, especially in the deep central 
trench, are to be protected by stone revetments. 

The route of the canal is the same as was originally adopted, and is thought 
to be judicious, the curves not having less than 9,843 feet radius in the normal 
course of the canal, with the exce])tion of one of 8,200 feet. 

The curvatures are gentle, not sharp. The smallest radius is 8,200 feet. Of 
the 4G miles of the canal 26.75 are straight, and 15 have radii equal to or not 
exceeding 9,850 feet. 

The aim of the commission has been to resort to simple forms of structures; 
moreover, it may be seen from its plans that, notwithstanding the magnitude of 
the work, every part has been kejit within the limits of well-established precedents. 

II. — Absolute control of the C'hagres Piver by the construction of two great 
dams which capture and store the floods, supply the summit level with water 
during the dry season, feed the canal, furnish abundant hydraulic power trans- 
mitted by electricity for operating the locks and lighting the entire length of 
the canal by night. 

For a considerable part of its length the location of the canal is in the 
valley of the Chagres River, a torrential stream which, although inconsiderable 
in dry times, is subject to sudden and sometimes enormous freshets; hence the 
necessity of providing such means as would prevent the destruction of the canal, 
unless diverted or regulated by proper means. 



460 THE PANAMA CAXAL. 

Such was the problem which presented itself to the old cf mpany. One of 
the main causes of the failure of the old company was evidently the lack of proper 
preliminary studies for the solution of such an important problem of engineering, 
the almost total neglect of the ijuestion of the dispo^^al of tlie C'hagrcs being 
especially noticeable. 

The receiver of the old company, fully realizing the deficiency, appointed 
a commission of engineers, whose comjirehensive report contained useful recom- 
mendations, several of which are embodied in the plans now adopted by the new 
company. 

As it is impossible to admit of the flow of the Chagres River directly into 
the bed of the canal, it must be either diverted or so disposed of and regulated as 
to be harmless in times of freshet. 

Diversion having been rejected from tlie inception of the jiroject as imprac- 
ticable, or, at any rate, too expensive, it has been decided to regulate the flow by 
the creation of large artificial lakes sufficiently extensive to store the largest freshets, 
with proper overflows for the safe disposal of them, without interfering harmfully 
with the regime of the water in the canal. 

The location, and especially the altitude of the aforesaid lakes, obviously 
depends, to a large extent, upon the height at which the bottom of the canal is 
established, and will be described later; but that presents no difficulty. 

In order to properly regulate the flow of the Chagres, two large dams will 
be erected. 



(a) One of these dams will be located at Bohio at the last group of locks oa 
the Atlantic side. It is to be built of earth on a sound argillaceous foundation, 
and the depth of water against it is' not to exceed fi5.G:2 feet. 

The maximum height of its water surface is to be G5.02 feet above mean sea 
level. 

This dam will transform the Chagres into a vast lake, the boundaries of 
wliieh have lieen accurately established. It will extend a distance of 13 miles 
to ()bis])o, where the canal will leave the river. The lake formed by the Bohio 
dam will cover an area of 21.5 square miles. Its lowest level is fixed at 52.5 
feet, its normal level at 55.75 feet, and its highest level at 65.5 feet above mean 
tide. It will be revetted with stone, \\ilh a foundation bed of clay and abutting 
against rock banks. The extreme length of crest will be 1,28G feet; the extreme 
height above the bed of the river will be 75.5 feet, and above the lowest point 
of the foundation 93.5 feet. All details of construction, includinsr the devices for 



THE PANAMA CANAL. ^'^I 

controlling the river during tlie progress of the work, have Ijeen carefully elabo- 
rated. The sites for the two overflow weirs are remote from the dam, and an 
abundance of excellent material is found near at hand. 

The capacity of the Bohio dam will be from 150,000,000 to 200,000,000 cubic 
meters. 

This dam, besides acting as a regulator of the Chagres floods, will obviate 
f^trong currents where the canal traverses the bed of the river — an extremely 
important matter for ocean shipping. 

(b) The other dam will be located at Alhajuela on the Upper Chagres, about 
9 1-3 miles from the canal; will be built entirely of concrete masonrj', on a com- 
pact rock foundation and abutting against rock walls. It will be about IG-i feet 
above the canal. The extreme length of crest will be 936.75 feet; the extreme 
height above the bed of the river will be 134.5 feet and above the lowest point 
of the foundation 1G4 feet. 

The cross-sections and the practical details of construction are in accord- 
ance with all the requirements of modern engineering. Good rock and sand are 
abundant in the immediate vicinity. 

This dam forms a reservoir covering 10 square miles, with a capacity of from 
100,000,000 to 130,000,000 cubic meters. 

One of the functions of this reservoir (made by the Alhajuela dam) is tliat 
of a feeder to the summit level of the canal, supplying the summit level with water 
in the dry season (January-April). But, in addition, it will assist in effectually 
controlling the floods of the Chagres and will furnish hydraulic power, transmit- 
ted by electricity, for operating the locks and lighting at night the entire canal 
from the Atlantic to the Pacifie. 

(c) For these purposes the reservoir will be connected with the summit level 
of the canal by a channel or feeder of a capacity of 25 cubic meters (6,G05 gallons) 
per Second. This feeder will be built from the Alhajuela dam to the canal, a dis- 
tance of 9 1-3 miles. It starts at 190.25 feet above sea level and will be built 
partly on the side hills and partly in inverted siphons or tunnels, and has been 
shown by exact surveys to be entirely feasible. 

It traverses a rough country and its construction will be relatively costly, 
but when compared with many irrigating canals west of the Mississippi River it 
offers no serious difficulties. 

A short auxiliary railroad will be built along the Chagres River for the con- 
struction of the Alhajuela dam and of its connecting channel. 



4(i2 THE PAX A. MA t'AXAL. 

(d) Both dams can, consequently, accumulate a storage of at least 250,000,000 
cubic meters (66,000,000,000 gallons), which, witli proirer adjustable weirs, are 
mere than sufficient to control the largest freshets known. 

These figures are the result of a careful study of the observations kept since 
the beginning of the operations of the old company and of the experience acquired 
since the building of the Panama Railroad. 

Should any larger freshet occur (a verj- rare occurrence), navigation might be 
interrui)ted for a day or two, but, owing to the precautions observed in designing 
the various structures, the canal would suffer no damage. 

(e) This entirely disposes of the question of the Chagres. It may flow 
to any extent which Nature may prompt. It is not ouly rendered harmless by 
being securely imjiounded by the great dams at Bohio and Alluijuela, which 
create the vast lake and reservoir described, but, on the other hand (as is well 
stated by General Abbot in the November Forum), "It may safely be affirmed 
that the Chagres River is no longer an element of danger, but is rather a useful 
friend, who.se assistance will be of great value to the canal in its operation."' 

III.— THE ArPREHEXSlOX OF CAYIXCJ IX THE DEEP CENTRAL 
CFT. 

The solution of this question cannot be more tersely nor accurately stated 
than it has been (in the November , '98, Forum) by the member of the Interna- 
tional Commission, the distinguished Brigadier-General Henry L. Abbot, who 
made a special study of the subject: 

"The question of caving in the deep central cut has been studied in the most 
thorough manner, involving not only many borings and pits, to determine the 
material to be encountered, but also a cunette excavated throughout the trouble- 
tome region along the axis of the canal, having a projected width at bottom of 
3?. 75 feet, with slopes of about -15 degrees, and a projected elevation above sea level 
varying from 128 feet to 157.5 feet. This work, together with a tunnel 689 feet 
long and 9.75 feet wide, pierced, at an elevation of 134.5 feet above sea level, 
at the spot which had given the most trottble on the whole route, combined with 
the evidence afforded by the borings and pits at greater depth, leads to the con- 
viction that, at Culebra, where the deepest cutting is required, the excavation has 
already passed through the strata subject to caving, and that the remainder 
traverses an indurated argillaceous schist changing to compact rock, where no 
fears of yielding to pressure need be entertained. At Emperador, where the cutting 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 4G3 

required for the eanal i^ iiuieli less, the indications are similar, except that the 
material at jn'csent reached is less resisting, but with proper precautions in the 
way of drainage, which were wholly neglected bj- the contractors of the old com- 
pany, little or no difficulty from serious caving need be apprehended. This work 
of experimental excavation has been continued for more than three years, involv- 
ing the removal of about 3,924,000 cubic yards. It was projected, partly to deter- 
mine the proper inclination for the side slopes, and partly to estimate the unit 
cost. The results are highly satisfactory; and the old bugbear of a sliding 
mountain divide has been proved to be imaginary." 

IV.— HEALTH OF EMPLOYEES. 

Again we employ the words of General Abbot in the same article: 

"The health of the personnel formerly caused trouble, coolies and other races 
not well suited to hard labor under a tropical sun being employed. With negroes 
from the British Antilles, little difficulty is now experienced. This matter was 
carefully investigated during the inspection last spring, American engineers and 
en'ployees on the canal and the Panama Railroad being questioned, the fine hos- 
])ital near Panama- — where the company provides for its sick — being visited, and 
the views of the medical officers and of the Sisters of Charity, acting as nurses, 
being obtained. All agreed that the dangers resulting from the climate have 
been much exaggerated. The surgeon in charge of the hospital. Dr. Lacroisade, 
who has resided on the isthmus since 1887, after presenting full statistics covering 
the sick reports for the past year of a force of about 3,800 agents and laborers under 
employment, said: 

" 'Among the diseases' attributalile to the climate the most numerous are 
simple marsh fevers, which have not occasioned a single death. Two diseases only 
belonging to the epidemic type have appeared — the beriberi, of which there is no 
longer any question [it was imported with negro laborers brouglit fi'om Africa 
as an experiment, and disappeared when they were sent back], and yellow fever. 
The latter, after liaving been absent from the isthmus for at least six years, was 
imported in 1897, and continued about six months, from March to August, when it 
again disappeared after very light ravages (only six deaths). Thus it cannot be 
considered that this pest is really epidemic on the isthmus. From the other infec- 
tious epidemics, such as variola, typhoid fever, diphtheria, etc., the isthmus appears 
to be almost entirely exempt. From the foregoing we may conclude that life on 
the isthmus scarcely incurs more dangers than elsewhere, even for Europeans 
who, after the blacks of the British Antilles, appear to resist the climate best. 
Residence here would, then, offer nothing' alarming, were it not for a constant 



4li-4 TllK PANAMA CANAL. 

feeling of fatigue and uneasiness due to a temperature always high and an atmos- 
phere saturated with moisture.' 

"There appears, therefore, to be no danger of serious mortality in the con- 
struction of the canal, if due care be taken to benefit by past experience in select- 
ing the laborers.'" 

v.— HARBORS AT TERxMIXI— COLON AND PANAMA. 

These harbors are so well known to the commerce of the world employing 
the Panama route that no extended remarks need be made. 

They are natural, not artificial, harbors; good and easy of access. 

The ships of many European, South and Central American nations, as well 
as of the United States, have for over fifty years regularly and daily availed of 
these ports, where the maritime conditions are most satisfactory. 

Neither of these harbors require protection or further excavation. They are 
in excellent condition. 

YL — There are no- active volcanoes within 200 miles of the canal. 

Vn. — There are no troublesome winds or river currents to be encountered, 
even in times of flow. 

A'lll. — The existence and operation of a railroad (the Panama Railroail), 
which \]\^' line of the canal closely follows, greatly facilitates the work of construc- 
tion and is of enormous advantage. 

Commerce has employed the Panama route for over fifty years. The con- 
ditions of traffic are established and well known. 

The Panama route constitutes a part of the coast line of the United States, 
connecting its Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Its terminal cities — Colon, Panama- 
arc ancient and firmly established. Upon the intermediate line thirty railroad 
stations, serving the neighboring villages and settlements, give character to the 
route. It is not a marshy jungle. It is a settled country, and the line has been 
made readily accessible and haliitable by fifty years' traffic, development and settle- 
ment. 

Regular lines of steamers, from Germany, England, France, New York. Bel- 
gium, Spain and Italy, on the Atlantic side, and San Francisco and all Central 
and South American and Mexican ports, on the Pacific side, lune for over fifty 
years regularly emj)loyed this route. 

The Panama route, therefore, needs no introduction to the commerce of the 
world, which has continuously employed it for nearly half a century. 










X 

o 






5 




THE PANAMA CANAL. 



4g: 



IX.-The time of transit for vessels througli tlie canal will be le.s than a day 
merchant and war vessels of the largest size can be accommodated. 

4 nnrf '"f"' ^°"' ^'"'"" *''''' ''''' ^'''' continuously employed from 3,000 to 
4,000 workn.en on the canal works, besides a large force of engineers, and at this 
moment that number is at work on the canal. 

XL— As stated, the canal will be onlv 4G miles hmr 

or^^^Vf' 'l""T. " ''' ^''''"'^' "''' '^"^^ '^ ""'^'^ - ^'- I'-'-'fi^ (-^bout 
one-half the entire distance), will be at sea level. 

■ From 12 to 13 miles on the Atlantic side and from 5 to C miles on the 
Pacific side are already completed, and, indeed, are used by the natives 

The intervening higher lands are materially cut 

This constitutes fully two-fifths of the entire work, and the remainder as 
before stated, is being completed with a body of four thousand men and a 1 r^e 
lorce ot engineers. ^ 

XII.-There is nothing in the physical conditions on the Isthmus to prevent 
a change from a canal with a system of locks to a sea-level canal, should the latter 
seem desirable in the future. 

Xin.-As above stated, the new company is now the absolute owner of the 
oana , canal works, buildings, machinery, material, concessions, and all other 
canal property on the Isthmus. 

The otfieial accounts and reports of experts, on the files of the Court in 
France, in the receivership proceedings, show that the expenditures actually made 
by the old company upon the Isthmus amounted to $156,400,000 and that of this 
sum die cost of excavation and embankment, proper, amounted to'.$88,G00 000 

_ For the purpose of establishing the actual present and reproductive' value of 
this property a Special Commission was constituted, of which the former Director 
of the National Academy of Roads and Bridges of France was chairman This 
commission established the said value at $90,000,000, which is a very eonservi 

Z f ""; ';"" ""■'' "'""'■""• ""■ ''''' ^°"'^''">- '-^ --l'^ 1-ge expendi- 
tures for construction, machinery, etc. 

The present fixed assets of the companv exceed $100 000 000 
And in addition, the cash, stocks and personal assets 'of the companv are 
some millions more, and ample for its needs. 

The company has no mortgage or bonded indebtedness of any kind. Its prop- 



468 THE PANAMA t'AXAL. 

erty is free from all ('ncumbraiico; it has no floating indebtedness, or other debts 
than monthly pay-rolls, promptly met. 

The company, being financially independent and continuing the construc- 
tion with its jircscnt resources, has neither created a bond issue nor solicited 
funds from the ])iililic nor from any government. 

XIY. — The security-holders of the old company have no vote, voice, title or 
ownership in the property of the new company or in the administration of its 
affairs. By private contract, merely, the new company has agreed that after 
all expenses of operation, maintenance, exploitation, dividends, reserve funds, etc., 
are provided for, a specified share of the surplus income shall be paid to the Liqui- 
dator of the old company for the benefit of his constituents; but this agreement has 
no effect upon, or relation to, the absolute ownership and administration of the 
canal by the new company. 

XV. — Tlie estimates oi cost of completion have been established from the 
experience acquired during the last four years of actual work on the Isthmus, and 
is reported by The International Technical Commission, as follows: 

The total cost of the work proper under plans adopted.. $ 87,000,000 
Add for contingencies 15,400,000 

Total .$102,-100,000 

If both locks be built with a width of 82.025 feet, the cost 

would be increased to '. $125,000,000 

THE TKAFFIC OF THE PAXA.AIA CAXAL. 

To determine the ]irobal)le traffic of the Interoceanic Canal, many interesting 
works and numerous publications have been written in recent years, with widely 
different conclusions. This is not the place to discuss the different opinions of 
the writers who have considered this important question, and especially because 
many of them, either from personal, political or financial motives, have reached 
conclusions minimizing or exaggerating the amount of traffic, according to their 
respective interests. 

The new comjiany has carefully analyzed these earlier discussions, and has 
not been satisfied with the basis upon wliiih they are founded. The company 
has sought a basis more reliable than conjecture, and it has jnirsucd an entirely 
new and more relialilc mcthcd for the settlement of this question and one not 
depending solely upon hyiiofhetical conclusions. This method was found. It is 



THE PAISTAMA CANAL. 4G0 

l)a-i'(l ii]i('n the stattnient nf thu tonnnpc of all the vesseU that, aetually following 
maiiliiT.e routes, would find it to their advantage to use that of an interoceanic 
canal, if the same were open to navigation. 

This involved enormous lahor, since it was necessary to investigate the traffic 
of at least 13,000 separate sailing vessels or steamers engaged in ocean navigation 
or coastwise trade. But the results obtained are most exact. It is sufficient to 
say that they are very satisfactory and show that the capital invested in the Panama 
Canal will be amply remunerated. 

The delicate and complex questions relative to the determination of the 
jirobablQ traffic of the canal were examined and acted upon by a special committee 
appointed by the new company, the president of which commission is the dis- 
tinguished and well-known economist, Mr. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, member of the 
Institute of France; 

THE CONCESSION TO THE PANAMA CANAL COMPANY. 

The concession of the new Panama Canal Company was granted by the 
Colombian Government by law dated the 28tli of May, 1878, extended by the 
law of the 26th of December, 1890, and the law of the 4th of August, 1893. 
The time for the completion of the canal is tliereby fixed at October, 1904; but 
in this present month of December, 1898, the Government of Colombia has granted 
an additional extension of si;; years — to 1910 — subject to the formality of ratifi- 
cation by Congress when it reconvenes — an assured act. This concession ^rants 
to this company the exclusive privilege of excavation through the Colombian 
territory and the opening of a maritime canal between the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans — the canal to be constructed without restrictive conditions of any kind. 
The concession continues for ninety-nine years from the time of 'the opening of 
the canal, either wholly or in part, for public use. 

The Government gratuitously cedes to the company the land necessary for 
digging the canal and all its branches. 

It also cedes for the purposes of the canal a zone of land G56 feet in width 
on each side throughout its entire length, wherever it may extend. 

In addition it cedes to the company 1,235,500 acres of public lands, with all 
mining rights in whatever localities the company may choose. 

The company has the right to introduce free of duty or any tax whatever 
any instruments, machinery, tools, materials, provisions, etc., to be needed for 
the use and construction of the canal. 



470 THE PANAMA CAXAL. 

No national tax nor state tax nor tax of any other kind npon the canal or 
its dependencies shall be imposed upon the vessels traversing said canal. 

The tolls of the canal to he charged to all vessels without exception or favor, 
under similar conditions, is not to exceed 10 francs (or two dollars) for each cubic 
meter based on the actual displacement of the hull. 

As a compensation for the rights and jirivileges granted to the company the 
C'olnmbian Government is entitled to receive five per cent on the gross revenue 
of the company for the first twenty-five years after the opening of the canal 
to the public; from the twenty-sixth year to the fiftieth year it will be entitled 
to six per cent; from the fiftieth to tlie seventy-fifth year, seven per cent, and 
from the seventy-fifth year to the end of the term, eight per cent. 

This concession was granted, and the work has been and is carried on, under 
the protection of the treaty between New Granada (Colombia) and the United 
States, made in 1846, and ratified in 1848. The portion of this treaty wliich 
refers to this subject, as well as the particular articles of the concession relating 
thereto, is of so much interest tliat tliey are quoted in full as follows: 

ARTICLE 35 OF THE TREATY OF 1846-8, BETWEEN NEW GRANADA 
(NOW REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA) AND THE UNITED STATES. 

"The United States of America and the Republic of New Granada, desiring to 
make as durable as possible the relations which are to be established between the 
two parties by virtue of this treaty, have declared solenmly and do agree to the 
following points: 

"First. — For the better understanding of the jjreceding articles, it is and 
has Ijeen stipulated between the high contracting parties that the citizens, vessels 
and merchandise of the L'nited States shall enjoy in the ports of New Granada, 
including those of the part of the Granadian territory denominated Isthmus of 
Panama, from its southernmost extremity until the boundary of Costa Rica, all 
the exemptions, privileges and immunities concerning commerce and navigation 
which are now or may hereafter be enjoyed by Granadian citizens, their vessels and 
merchandise, and that this equality of favors shall be made to extend to the 
passengers, corres]iondence and merchandise of the United States in their transit 
across the said territory Irom one sea to the other. 

''The Government of New Granada guarantees to the Government of the 
United States that the right of way or transit across the Isthmus of Panama, 
upon any modes of communication that now exist or that may hereafter be con- 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 471 

stnicted, shall be open and free to the Government and citizens of the United 
States, and for the transportation of any articles of produce, manufactures, or 
merchandise, of lawful commerce, belonging to the citizens of the United States; 
that no other tolls or charges shall be levied or collected upon the citizens of the 
Ignited States, or their said merchandise, thus passing over any road or canal 
that may be made by the Government of New Granada, or by the authority of 
the same, that is, under like circumstances, levied upon and collected from the 
Granadian citizens; that any lawful produce, manufactures or merchandise be- 
longing to the citizens of the United States thus passing from one sea to the 
other, in either direction, for the ]iurpose of exportation to any other foreign 
country, shall not be liable to any import duties whatever; or, having paid such 
duties, they shall be entitled. to draw back upon their e.xportation; nor shall the 
citizens of the United States be liable to any duties, tolls or charges of any kind 
to which native citizens are not subjected for thus passing the said Isthmus. 

"And, in order to secure to themselves the tranquil and constant enjoyment of 
these advantages, and as an especial compensation for the said advantages, and for 
the favors they have acquired by the fourth, fifth and sixth articles of this treaty, 
the United States guarantee positively and efficaciously to New Granada, by the 
present stipulation, the perfect neutrality of the before-mentioned Isthmus, with 
the view that the free transit from the one to the other sea may not be interrupted 
or embarrassed in any future time while this treaty exists; and, in consequence, 
the United States also guarantee, in the same manner, the rights of sovereignty 
and property which New Granada has and possesses over the said territory. 



"Sixth. — Any special or remarkable advantages that one or the other powers 
may enjoy from the foregoing stipulation are and ought to be always understood 
in virtue and as in com])ensation of tlie obligations they have just contracted, and 
wliieh had licen specified in the first of this article." 



CHAPTER II. 

THE SUEZ CANAL. 

The Monument of Disraeli and De Lesseps That, Though of Shifting Nature 
in Shifting Sand, Is More Imperishable than ^larble or Brass or Any 
Towering Structure Reared by Human Hands — What the Great Engineer 
De Lesseps, YTlio, Though He Subsequently ilade a Failure, Did Enough 
for Immortality, Had to Say — The Suez Canal the Grandest Work of 
Public Im])rovement in the Most Progressive Century — The Dramatic 
History Without a Parallel as a Scheme of Daring Scientific Fancy or 
Realization of Golden Dividends. 

Lord Beaconsfield was the British statesman who saw the full importance of 
the Suez Canal to the Empire, and, with a stroke of genius and the nerve of 
one who had counted all the consequences and accepted them, snatched the 
Egyptian shares in the market, gained command of the canal and suppressed 
an Egyptian revolt, incidentally preparing to take the first occasion to conquer 
Egj'pt. Count de Lesseps had with his daring engineering and diplomatic finesse 
gained a commanding advantage for the French, and crowned his triumph by 
securing the attendance at the opening of the canal of his relative, the Empress 
Eugenie, her presence being at once a decoration and celebration. The French, 
absorbed in their self-consciousness after the fall of Napoleon III., and when 
the succeeding republic was old enough to offer temptation to intrigue, declined 
to aid in the subjugation of the revolted Egyptian soldiers and left the British 
to bombard Alexandria, crush the rebellion and possess the Nile country. Ever 
since the domination of England in Egypt has been a matter of course, and her 
commercial suptemacy manifest in the business of the canal. This is the justifi- 
cation of the exercise of power and will continue while the Empire stands, just 
as legitimate as holding Gibraltar, Malta and Cypress. Eg}-pt is England's Ilalf- 
Way House to India, and the prestige of the British Empire depends upon the 
continuance of the potentiality of the English in Southern and Eastern Asia. 
Disraeli has passed away, having done a wondcrfiil work for his country, and the 
Queen he made Empress of India is loyal in her grateful memory for the immense 
audacity and consummate conduct that increased the dignity of her station and 
the grandeur of her dominion. The Suez Canal is to England and Europe at large 
what the Panama or Nicaragua Canal completed and wide open would be for 
the greater American Republic, and all of the great nations, providing a water- 

472 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 473 

way in tlie tropics approximating to a direct channel for tlie circumnavigation 
of tlie globe, relieving at once the disadvantages of the Pacific coast of our conn- 
try, and establishing this nation as one of the powers in Asia. We might well 
be content if the canal of the Isthmus of Darien was free as that of Suez, for 
if we ever needed to assert ourselves by force of arms we could at any time 
-SJtmmnn the ])hyt-ical force to vindicate our r'ghts, and tluit we would tind at 
all times the equivalent of onr capacity. That would be a far stronger way of 
asserting ourselves than to be contentious in Congressional debates about con- 
tracts. 

We quote "The Suez Canal," by Ferdin;ind de Lesseps: Translated by M. 
Do'Anvers. Henry S. King & Company, London, 1807. 

This is the minute dated ilaria, Xovember 15, 18.54, and addressed to His 
Highness, Mohammed Said, Viceroy of Egypt and its dependencies: 

The scheme of uniting the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, by means of 
a navigable canal suggested itself to all the great men who have ever ruled over 
or passed through Egypt, including Sesostris, Alexander, Caesar, the Arali conqueror 
Amrou, Xapoleon L, and Mohammed All. 

A canal effecting a junction between the two seas, via the Nile, existed for 
a period of unknown duration under the ancient Egyptian dynasties; during a 
second period of 445 years from the first successors of Alexander and the Roman 
conquest to about the fourth century before the Mohammedan era; and, lastly, 
during a third period of 130 years after the Arab conquest. 

On his arrival in Egyi)t Xapoleon appointed a commission of engineers to 
ascertain whether it would be possible to restore and improve the old route. The 
question was answered in the affirmative; and when M. Lepere presented him 
with the report of the commission the Emperor observed: "It is a grand work, 
and. though I cannot execute it now, the day may come wlien the Turkish Gov- 
ernment may glory in accomplishing it." 

The moment for the fulfillment of Napoleon's prophecy has arrived. The 
making of the Suez Canal is beyond doubt destined to contribute more than 
anything else to the stability of the Ottoman Empire and to give the lie to those 
who proclaim its decline and approaching ruin by ]iroving that it is possessed 
of prolific vitality and cajiable of adding a lu-illiant page to the history of 
civilization. 

Why, I ask, did the western nations and their rulers combine as one man 
to secure the possession of Constantinople to the Sultan? Why did the power 
which menaced that possession meet with tlie armed opposition of Europe? Be- 



474 THE SUEZ CANAL. 

cause of the importance of the passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean 
is such tliat European power commanding it would dominate over every other, 
and would upset the balance of power, which it is to the interest of each one to 
maintain. 

But supjiose a similar, though yet more important position, be established on 
some other point of the Ottoman Empire; suppose Egypt to be converted into 
the highway of commerce by the opening of the Suez Canal; would not a doubly 
impregnable situation be created in the East? for, afraid of seeing one of them- 
selves in possession of the new passage at some future date, would not the Euro- 
pean powers look upon the maintenance of its neutrality as a vital necessity? 

Fifty years ago M. Lepere said he should require ten thou-^and men for four 
years and thirty or forty million francs for the restoration of the old indirect 
canal. He thought, moreover, that it would be possible to cut across the isthmus 
from Suez to Pelusium in a direct line. 

M. Paulin Talabot, who was associated, as surveying engineer for a mari- 
time canal society, with the equally celebrated Stephenson and Xegrelli, advo- 
cated the indirect route from Alexandria to Suez, and proposed using the barrage 
already existing for the passage of the Xile. He estimated the total cost at 130,- 
000,000 francs for the canal and 20,000,000 for the port and roadstead of Suez. 

Linant Be}', the able director for some thirty years of the canal works of 
Egypt, who has made the Suez Canal question the study of his life in the country 
itself, and whose opinion is therefore worthy of serious respect, proposed cutting 
through the isthmus, at its narrowest part, in an almost direct: line, establishing 
a largo internal port in the basin of Lake Timsah, and rendering the harbors of 
Suez and Pelusium accessible to the largest vessels. 

Gallice Bey, general of engineers and foimder and director of the fortifica- 
tions of Alexandria, presented Mohammed Ali with a canal scheme coinciding 
entirely with that pro])oscd by Linant Bey. 

Mougel Bey, director of works at the barrage of the Xile, and chief engineer 
des ponts et Chaussees, also had some conversation with ^lohammed Ali on the 
possibility and desirability of making a maritime canal, and in 1840, at the 
request of Count Walewski, then on a mission in Egypt, he was commissioned 
to take some preliminary measures in Europe, which were, however, prevented by 
political events from leading to any definite results. 

A careful survey would decide which would be the best route, and, the scheme 
having once been recognized as possible, nothing remains to be done but to choose 
the readiest means for carrying it out. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 



47,> 



Xone of the necessary operations, difficult though they may be, are really 
formidable to modern science. There can be no fear nowadays of their failure. 
The whole affair is, in fact, reduced to a mere question of pounds, shillings and 
pence, a question which will, without doubt, be readily solved by the modern 
spirit of enterprise and association. That is to say, if the advantages to result 
from its solution are at all appropriate to the cost. 

Xow, it is quite easy to prove that the cost of the Suez Canal, even on the 
largest estimate, will not be out of proportion with its value, shortening, as it 
must do, by more than half, the distance between India and the principal coun- 
tries of Europe and America. 

To illustrate this fact I add the following table, drawn 

Professor of Geology: 

Leagues- 
Names of the chief ports of Via the 
Europe and America. Canal. 

Constantinople 1,800 

Malta >■ 1 2.062 



Trieste I ^ 

Marseilles I g 

Cadiz " 

Lisbon 

Bordeaux .. 



2,340 

2.374 

2.224 

.' 2!500 

2.800 

Havre R : 2.824 

London '^ 3.100 

Liverpool <; 3,050 

Amsterdam !i 3,10u 

St. Petersburg ";; 3.700 

New York I n 1 3,761 

New Orleans 3.724 



drawn up 


by M 


Cordier, 


Via the 






Atlantic. 


Difference. 


6.100 




4,300 


5.800 




3,778 


5.980 




3,620 


5,650 




3,276 


5.200 




2.976 


2.350 




2.830 


6,650 




2,850 


5,800 




2.976 


5.950 




2,850 


5.900 




2.850 


5,950 




2.850 


6,550 




2,850 


6.200 




2,439 


6,450 




2,726 



With such figures before us comment is useless, for they demonstrate that 
Europe and the United States are alike interested in the opening of the Suez 
Canal and in the maintenance of its strict inviolable neutrality, 

Mohammed Said is already convinced that no scheme can compare either in 
grandeur or in practical utility with tliat in question. "What luster it would 
reflect upon his reign! what an inexhau.'^tible source of wealth it would be to 
Egypt! Wliilst the names of the sovereigns who built up the pyramids, those 
monuments of human vanity, are unknown or forgotten, that of the prince who 
should inaugurate the great maritime canal would go down from age to age, and 
be blessed by the most remote generations! The pilgrimage to Mecca, hence- 
forth rendered not only possible but easy for all Musselmen, an immense impulse 
given to steam navigation and traveling generally, the countries on the Eed Sea, 
Persian Gulf, the east coast of Africa, Spain, Cochin China, Japan, the Emjiire 
of China, the Philippine Islands, Australia, and the vast archipelago now attract- 



476 THE SUEZ CANAL. 

ing emigration from the old world brought three thousand leagues nearer alike to 
the Mediterranean, the north of Europe, and to America, such would be the 
immediate results of the opening of the Suez Canal. 

It has been estimated that six million tons of European and American ship- 
ping annually pass round the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn, and if only 
one-half went through the canal there would be an annual saving to commerce 
of 150,000,0(0 francs. 

There (an be no doubt that the Suez Canal will lead to a considerable increase 
of tonnase, counting it at 3,000,000 tons only, an annual produce of 30,000,000 
francs will be obtained by levying a toll of ten francs per ton, which might be 
reduced in proportion to the increase of traffic. 

Before closing this note I must remind Your Highness that i)reparations are 
actually being made in America for making new routes between the Atlantic and 
Pacific, and at the same time call your attention to the inevitable results to 
commerce generally, and that of Turkey in particular should the isthmus separating 
the Bed Sea from the Mediterranean remain closed for any length of time after 
the opening of the proposed American lines. 

The chief difference between the Isthmus of Panama and that of Suez would 
appear to be that the mountainous nature of the former presents insuperable 
difficulties to the construction of a continuous ship canal, whereas on the latter 
such a canal would be the best solution of tlie difficulty. For America a kind of 
compromise has been made, the route consisting partly of a canal and partly of 
a railway. Now if, with a view to effecting only a partial success, the nations 
chiefly interested have come forward at once in a case where the advantages to 
be obtained are fewer and the expenses far greater than they would be in the 
Suez Canal scheme, and if the conventions for insuring the neutrality of the 
American route were accepted without difficulty, are we not forced to conclude 
that the moment has come for considering the question of the Isthmus of Suez? 
that the scheme for a canal which is of far more importance to the whole world 
than the Panama line, is perfectly secure from any real opposition, and that, in 
our efforts to carry it out, we shall be supported by universal sympathy and' by 
the active and energetic co-operation of enlightened men of every nationality? 

(Signed) FERDINAND Di: LESSEPS. 

"All the Year Round," conducted by Charles Dickens, told the story of the 
Suez Canal in this pleasing chapter, in which there is a fine example of the truth 
stranger than fiction: 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 47 T 

The most picturesque firm of struggle, and tlie one whicli commands the 
most sympathy and admiration from the work!, is that of the adventurer, in tiie 
honest sense of the term, who enters on some forlorn project, which has all the 
magnificence of a dream, and lives to be successful and triumphant. 

Success is declared, and the end gained, there is invariably seen the humiliat- 
ing spectacle of a complacent reception of what may not be rejected, and a smiling 
adoption of a portion, at least, of the honors. The rebuffs and the scoffs are 
set to the account of the adAxnturer's own indiscretion; and the world, it would 
seem, is too great a personage to be compelled to own to mistakes or cry peccavi. 
Though it welcomes the discovery — the result of so painful a struggle — and greed- 
ily turns it to profit, it is ill at ease, as it were, like some great man who has 
prophesied that some one or something would turn out badly, and whom the 
event has proved to be signally wrong. 

One morning in the month of August, ISo-t, a French gentleman was engaged 
in superintending some masons who were at work adding a story to his house 
at La C'henaie — a house that had once been occupied by the famous Agnes Sorel. 

On that morning, then, of August, 1854, when engaged with the masons, 
and standing on the roof of Agnes Sorel's house, the post arrived, and the letters 
were handed up from workman to workman until they reached the proprietor. Li 
one of the newspapers he read the news of the death of Abbas Pasha, and of the 
accession of Mohammed Said, a patron and friend of the old Egypt days. They 
had been joined on affectionate and confidential terms. Instantly the scheme 
was born again in his busy soul, and his teeming brain saw the most momentous 
result from the change of authority. In a moment he had hurried down the 
ladder and was writing congratulations and a proposal to hurry to Egypt and 
renew their acquaintance. In a few weeks came the answer, and the ardent 
projector had written joyfully to his old friend, the Dutch Consul, that he would 
be on his way in November. Expressing the delight he would have in meeting 
him again, "in our old land in Egypt,"' but "there was not to be so much as a 
whisper to anyone of the scheme for jnercing the isthmus." On the 7th of 
November he landed at Alexandria, and was received with the greatest w'elcome 
liy the new ruler. The Viceroy was on the point of starting on a sort of military 
promenade to Cairo. It was when they had halted on their march, on a fine- 
evening, the loth, tliat he at last saw the opportunity. He felt, as he confessed, 
that all depended on the way the matter was put before the prince, and that he 
must succeed in inspiring him with some of his own entluniasm. He accordingly 
proceeded to unfold his plan, which he did in a broad fashion, without insisting 



•J 7 8 TllK SUEZ CANAL. 

too iinicli on petty details. The easterner listened calmly to the end, made some 
dirticulties, heard the answers, and then addressed his eager listener in these words: 

"I am satisfied, and I accept your scheme. We will settle all the details during 
our journey. But understand that it is settled, and you may count upon me." This 
was virtually the "concession" of the great canal. But already the fair prospect 
was to he clouded, and at starting, opposition to so daring a scheme came from 
England, and from Turkey, moved by England. Those wonderful French savants 
who w ent with the expedition to Egypt had announced that there was a difference 
of level amounting to thirty feet between the two seas, so that the communication 
would only lead to an inundation or a sort of permanent waterfall. Captain Ches- 
ney, passing by in 1830, declared that this waS not so, but the delusion w^as 
accepted popularly uj) to 1847, when a commission of three engineers — English, 
French and German — made precise levelings, and ascertained that it was a scientific 
mistake. Eobert Stevenson, the English member of the party, pronounced the 
whole scheme impracticable. And a more amusing half-hour"s entertainment could 
not be desired than the Edinburgh Review article for January, 185G, in which it 
is ]iroved trium]iluintly that the canal must fdl uji, and that no harbor or pier 
could be made. The article argued it all out with a formal array of facts. Lord 
Palmerston's opposition is well known, but the shower of articles in the leading 
journals w^hich ridiculed, prophesied and confuted, are now well nigh forgotten. 

Tt was first proposed to follow a round-about route, making two sides of a 
triangle, with the existing line for the third. One portion of the waterway, from 
Damietta to Cairo, was supplied by the Nile itself. So there only remained 
a distance of twenty miles to be dealt with. But the Nile was itself a difficulty — 
the irrigation and other works would be interfered witli, and there were enormous 
problems as to levels, etc. The direct course was therefore adopted. A curious 
scientific party, known as the Mixed Commission, formed of engineers from all 
of the leading nations, jiroceeded, at the close of 1855, to make a thorough exam- 
ination of the question on the si)ot, and nothing is more creditable to science 
than the masterly style in which every point was investigated. The result was 
satisfactory, and it was determined to commence the work. 

The route chosen was favored by many advantages: the distance, though 
ninety miles in length, was already canalized by various lakes, great and small, to 
the extent of about thirty miles or more. Roughly, tlu' course was as follows: 
Starting from the Mediterranean, the entrance is found in a strip of sand from 
four to five hundred feet wide and which forms the rim, as it were, of the bowl 
which holds Lake Menzalch. Here is Port Said, the gate, or doorway of the 



THE SUEZ CANAL. ^'^^ 

Canal; then for about thirty miles is found the great lake just named, where there 
rises a slight hill, about twenty-five feet high; then a small lake, then for about 
thirty miles a series of gradually rising hills, culminating in a rather stiff plateau. 
Beyond the plateau is Lake Timseh, about five miles long, where there is the 
half-way port, Ismailia. Then succeeds another plateau, large basin, known as 
the Bitter Lakes, extending about twenty miles, while the rest is land up to 
the Eed Sea. These lakes were in some jilaces dry. There were no sluices or 
locks, though these lakes would be greatly enlarged by the admission of the 
waters. 

The canal might have been about fifteen miles shorter bad it been lower down 
in the Gulf of Pelusium, but the cost and time would have been greater, as there 
'Were no lakes in that line. It is narrow, not allowing more than one vessel to 
proceed at a time; but there are numerous "lie-by" places where vessels can pass 
each other. This is necessary, as sometimes so many as thirty vessels are in the 
canal at a time. It will take vessels drawing so much as five and twenty feet. 

That England, with her Asiatic possessions, dreaded the Suez Canal under 
French control was manifest from the first efforts of De Lesseps, who not only 
surmounted the physical difficulties of cutting through the Suez, but was con- 
stantly opposed by English diplomacy. 

"The Xineteenth Century," December, 1882, page 840: 

"While the Canal is in the hands of a French company, supported by France, 
it lies in the hands of a Power more formidable than Arabi to close it tem- 
porarily to England and open it to her foes — a Power, be it remembered, which, 
though friendly now, might be hostile to-morrow and has geographically a week's 
start of us on the road to India, while by blocking the canal she would have 
three week's start at least of a (leet stopped at its mouth. No one will doubt the 
t'.xpediency, at all events, of depriving the possibly hostile Power of this dangerous 
advantage, though some persons may question our moral right to do so. 



"While the influence of England was paramount at Constantinople the oppo- 
sition of Lord Palmerston prevailed witli the Sultan, whs refused to ratify the 
Khedive's concession to France. When the Crimean and Franco-Austrian wars 
had enormously exalted the prestige of France (rather at the expense of England) 
the concession was granted to M. De Lesseps (virtually to France), though not in 
its original shape, which would have been an intolerable menace and danger to 



480 THE SUEZ CAXAL. 

England. The original concession was not iu fact merely tlie right to construct 
the canal, but to possess a slice of Egypt (of indefinite extent), commanding the 
whole course of the canal, and wiiich would very soon have become virtually a 
French territory. 

"To refer to the immense preimnderance of English shipping benefited by the 
Canal trallic only shows that in peace time we gain by the facilities created. Lord 
Palmerston, who was neither a fool nor a bigot, never denied that in peace time a 
short route for commerce, if obtained, would be beneficial to England. What he 
recognized as a great danger was that if France made the Canal she would arrogate 
entire control over it, plant her flag on the banks, and appoint every official and 
pilot. The facts have more than justified the jjrediction, and but for the events 
of 1870-71, which prevented Franc;e from backing the arrogant pretense of the 
Canal officials, we should have been involved in very serious difficulties, or actual 
war on two recent occasions. 

"But although the influence of France overpowered the opposition of Lord 
Palmerston, enabled her to obtain the concession from the Khedive in its most 
objectionable form, Lord Palmerston did not give up the struggle. Rightly judging 
the danger of the encroachment and the object of obtaining the territory bordering 
the new waterway to India, he protested against a French imperium in imperio in 
I'^gypt. Pcrhajis the Emperor (Napoleon III.) was more moderate in his views than 
the projectors of the Canal: but in any case the territory of the canal company was 
bought back by Egypt (at a Shylock price) much, we may suppose, to M. de Les- 
seps' disgust. 

"On no theory, except the audacious Napoleonic idea of a France supreme and 
Europe submissive, could M. Thiers have taken the part he did. France insisted 
that all Euro]ic should succumb to her. The firmness of Lord Palmerston pre- 
vailed. A British fleet bombarded St. Jean d"Acre, and landing a force which 
threatened Ibraham's communications, forcing him to retire into Egypt, M. de Les- 
seps thought that France had accpiired some mysterious rights from the first Napo- 
leon's abortive enterjirise in 1T!)S. 

"II. de Lesseps keenly felt the defeat of French intrigue by England in 1840, 
and if, as is probable, it was at that time he conceived the idea of his canal, 'the 
spear to pierce the armrir of England,' it must have been some consolation for the 
reverse. 

"The diplomatic career of il. de Lesseps had trained him in that antagony to 
England wliich he was formerly at no pains to conceal. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 481 

"A canal from Suez to the Nile (all that was wanted in those days to do the 
work of the Suez Canal) probably existed three thousand years ago. Tlie French 
expedition of 1798 revived the idea with the object of injuring England. And it is 
])robable that M. de Lesseps, benefited by the researches then made and renewed in 
1803 by his father, a Napoleonic soldier, by using up some thousand wretched Fel- 
lahas, who perished miserably at the work, backed by the whole influence of France 
and all the Khedive's resources- — was able to have the work done by others and 
take the credit himself. As a promoter M. de Lesseps has been very successful, and 
though that profession is not highly esteemed in England, he has obtained celeb- 
rity as what he does not happen to be — an engineer!'' 

That a British canal can be made to suit our needs in the present, and our 
greater needs in the future, and to make a large return on the capital expended, 
is proved by the existing canal, upon which much money was wasted. The only 
serious objection will arise from the fact that the British Government holds £4,000,- 
000 of the stock of the present canal, the value of which would be depreciated by 
the competition. This is a consideration of some importance, but it cannot out- 
weigh the immense advantages of having our Lidian communications in our own 
hands instead of a jealous rival's, who may some day be an enemy. There would, 
moreover, probably be traffic enough for both canals. 

The Fortnightly Review. September, 1893. England's right to the Suez 
Shares. Casper W. AYliitney. Pages 105-424. 

In his speech on public revenue and expenditure, April 21, 1887, Mr. Goshen 
said that there was one national asset which had never yet been brought into ac- 
coimt at its real value. He referred to the 176,000 shares in the Suez Canal. Mr. 
Goshen said: 

"The shares, which are £20 shares, and whicli when they were bought were 
worth about £27, yielded a dividend of 5 per cent on their par value, are now (1887) 
worth £84 each, and yield about 15 per cent on their par value. We shall come 
into a large revenue per annum on these shares from 1894, unless there shall be 
any fall in the revenue of the Canal, a contingency which we do not anticipate. The 
actuarial value of the shares at the present moment is £10,500,000." 

It was Mr. Goshen's proposal to use the interest of the Suez shares for the 
purpose of national defence in fortifying naval stations, etc. "The irony of fate 
was never more strikingly exhibited. French enterprise, and capital obtained from 
Egypt and France, were thus to be utilized to facilitate British control over India 
and the lands over against Tonquin, to obtain a dominant influence in Egypt, and 



482 THE SUEZ CAXAL. 

finally to pay the cost of defensive military works which can never be seriously 
threatened except by a French fleet. 

"There are few persons even now who understand the exact nature of the trans- 
action by which England obtained possession of these shares with their potentiality 
of wealth and power. This is what Mr. Milner says: 

"'Sixteen years ago we bought for four million pounds Egypt's interest in 
the Suez Canal, which, had she only clung to it, would soon have become so fertile 
a source of income to her. What we bought for four uiillion jiounds will in another 
year l)e worth something near twenty million pounds." 

"In addition to the shares, England required I'-gypt to contract a wholly new 
obligation. A terminable annuity of two hundred thousand pounds a year to be 
pai(] by Egypt to England was created in 1876 to expire in 1894. The shares 
belonged to Egypt, not to Tsniain. They were an asset of the Goverument, and 
would never have passed to Tcwfik as his private property or that of his brothers 
had Ismael been succeeded by Prince Halim. The ruler of the day contributed 
from first to last more than all the sums borrowed or subscribed by share-holders 
in Europe. These advances were made by the Egyptian treasury, and there can 
be no doubt that the shares belonged to the Egyptian Government and not to any 
ruler of Egypt. The shares will be worth in 1894, at present prices?, £18,543,210. 
The transaction of 1876 belongs to a class against which a court of equity has never 
failed to afford relief. 

"On the one side is the British treasury, claiming to have made t'18, 500,000 
witliout the exjienditure of a farthing. On the other side are all those who are in- 
terested in Egypt, including British tax-payers who have purchased Egyjitian se- 
curities. If it is even possible that the opinion might be expressed by the judicial 
and financial advisers to His Ilighness the Khedive, or by the international trib- 
unals, that Great Britain never acquired the ownershij) of the Suez Canal shares 
in fee sim])lc absolute, because they were the property of the inhabitants of Egypt, 
created by their labor, subject to the lien of ilie creditors of Egypt and those of the 
Ottoman lunpire; that they were pledged and not sold by a Khedive dismissed for 
malversation in office at the instance of England itself; that they had been re- 
deemed by the annual payment of £200,000,000 a year, raised sometimes out of taxes 
cruelly biiideiisciuie, sometimes by new imposts and fresh loans, would it not be 
more discreet to begin as speedily as possible to show a disposition to treat this 
fund as a source out of which mutual benefits might be obtained?" 

Appleton's Journal. London. April number, 1880. Page 303-310. The Suez 
Canal: A History. By Judge P. H. ]\Iorgan. 




NATIVE HOUSE, SHOWINH KITCHEN, IN MASAYA, NICARAGUA. 




BARBER SHOP IN ADOBE HOUSE, MASAYA. NICARAGUA. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. . 485 

ATlieu Ismail Pasha ascciKlod the Viceregal throne of Egypt he inherited from 
his predecessor, Said Pasha, a legacy which proved to he the cause of his trouhle, 
his misfortunes and his end. Said Pasha had granted to a French company the 
rigiit to cut a ship canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. It was a grand 
idea, no doubt, hut, if we are to believe the records of the past, it was not a new 
one. Twice before the waters of the Mediterranean had been connected with the 
waters of the Eed Sea, and it is generally credited that even the Canal which now 
exists was projected long before the present company undertook to dig it. It was 
a gigantic undertaking, although not a very difficult one to accomplish. It does 
not require any great engineering skill to excavate in sand; and, as soon as it was 
ascertained that the sand would not return to the place from which it was taken, 
the problem was solved. As for the danger arising from the sides falling in, every- 
one knows that wet sand is always hard, and that it has no tendency to "cave." 
Anyone who walks upon a beach may observe it for himself. Still, it was a great 
undertaking. It has proved to all the world — Egypt alone excepted — a great advan- 
tage. For Egypt, however, it has turned out to be a great commercial as well as 
a great political mistake. It has been the principal cause of her financial ruin, and 
led to the dethronement of her late Viceroy. 

It has proved a great commercial mistake in this: that it has permitted all 
the travel and all the merchandise going to and coming from India to Europe to 
pass her by; whereas, before the Canal was dug, everything and every person going 
to and coming from that direction stopped at her ports, used her roads, and paid 
toll continually, thus profiting every one, from hotel-keeper to donkey-boy. 

It was a political mistake, because it has placed Egypt on the highway to India, 
thus making her an object of zealous solicitude, and of great importance from a 
strategical point of view to those nations whose power is supposed to be mainly 
derived from that country or whose ambition lies in that direction; while the ruinous 
influence it has exercised over the finances of Egypt may be seen by a passing 
glance at the facts. 

The first proposition which was made to the Khedive (Said Pasha) by the 
projectors of the enterprise was a very plain and simple one. If the Pasha would 
permit them to excavate a canal through his dominions, which would join the Medi- 
terranean with the Eed Sea, they would do all the work at their own cost. When 
the canal should be completed they would pay him 15 per cent of the profits which 
the canal might earn. As there was no water in the country through which it was 
to be cut excejit such as would come into it from the sea, and as a great number of 
workmen would be employed upon it, and as the principal part of the grain of the 



486 Till-; SFKZ CANAL. 

country i.s finnvii in Upper Kgypt, beyond Cairo, wliicli then came to Alexandria 
for shi])ment, and wliicli, it was hoped, would find its way to the sea through tlie 
canal, it was agreed that, should a sweet-water canal be deemed necessary, the com- 
pany were to be permitted to dig one, always at their own cost, from the Nile, 
starting from a point near to and above Cairo, to the ship canal. They were to be 
the owners for ninety-nine years of all the (iovernnient lands, then unoccupied, 
which lay along the banks of the canal, and which might be irrigated from it free 
of taxes for ten years. At the expiration of ninety-nine years the entire works were 
to revert to the Government upon the company being paid the value of their im- 
provements. In case the charter should be renewed at the expiration of its term, 
the Government was to receive an increased share of the profits. Nothing could 
be more business-like than this. The results which the enterprise promised were so 
great that its projectors could afford to do the entire work, at their own cost, and 
give to the granter of the privilege 15 \)er cent of their profits. This percentage 
of the profits would compensate for the loss of traffic which the country then en- 
joyed from travelers and from merchandise in transit. But the grant was coupled 
with the express stipulation that the Khedive was not to be bound to anything re- 
garding it, unless the Sultan should approve of the scheme, and give to it his as.sent. 
In point of fact, therefore, it was the Sultan who was to grant tlie necessary con- 
cessions. For this consent, however, the conijiany did not wait, and they went to 
work. 

Matters do not appear to have progressed very rapidly. The company had un- 
•dertaken a great work, and, to perfect it, rt'cpiired a great deal of money. The 
money was not forthcoming. Subscriptions to the stock were slow. Capitalists were 
not eager to invest in such an undertaking. As usual, there were many croakers 
abroad. Every scheme of the sort finds many enemies. In England, particularly, 
it was looked upon with great disfavor, just as canals in that country w'ere pro- 
nounced inijiracticablc when they were first projected; in tlu> United States, just 
as railroads were, before they were built. Many people believed that the level of the 
Red Sea was so far below the level of the Mediterranean that, the canal being dug, 
all the water of the latter would jiour through it, leaving its bed dry. On the 
other hand, there were others who thought the level of the Mediterranean so far 
1)elow the level of the Ked Sea that all the waters of the Indian Ocean would pour 
into it and flood a great portion of the continent of Europe. Capitalists were not 
eager to invest in an undertaking which threatened so great a disaster. Besides, 
the money, when it came, was to come from Europe, and those who had it did not 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 487 

fancy sending it so far away from home, under so many conditions of doxiljt and 
peril. 

To place thenaselves upon a better footing, the company obtained further con- 
cessions from the Viceroy (always subject, however, to the approval of the Sultan). 
Among other things, they were to be permitted to dig a fresh-water canal, starting 
from the point where the first one was to touch the marine canal, extending to the 
south as far as Suez and to the north as far as Port Said. All the unoccupied land 
lying along the route of this iirojected canal, and belonging to the Government, 
which might be irrigated from it (amounting to many thousands of acres, and 
which only needs the Xile water to make it productive) was to belong to the com- 
pany for ninety-nine years, and was to be free of ta.xes for ten years. They were 
to lie allowed to demand pay for the water which the canal might furnish the pro- 
prietors of land in its neighborhood. Tliey were to be allowed to charge ten francs 
per ton on vessels which might use tlie ship-canal, and ten francs toll on each pas- 
senger who might pass through it. 

One stipulation only was made in the interest of the people of the country. 
As it was evident that the construction of these vast works would require the em- 
ployment of a great number of laborers, it was agreed by the company that four- 
fifths, at least, of the workmen employed upon them should be Egyptians. These 
the Khedive agreed to furnish. They were to be paid as follows: Those who were 
under twelve years of age were to receive two and a half piasters (about twelve and 
a half cents) per diem; those over twelve years of age were to receive three 
jiiasters (about fifteen cents) per diem; they were also to receive rations to 
the value of one piaster (about five cents) per diem, without regard to age. Lodging 
was to be provided for them, also hospitals, and transportation was to be furnished 
them to the point to which they were to work. The Khedive little dreamed when 
he made this stipulation, which was clearly intended should benefit- his people, that 
he was consigning upward of twenty thousand human beings to their graves, and 
that he would, in the end, be called upon and forced to pay an immense sum of 
money for it. 

Even with •these vast grants in their favor the company stood in the presence 
of many difficulties. Altliougli the first concession was made in November, 1854, 
and the second in January, 1856, the subscription-books were not opened until 
November, 1858. To secure 200,000,000 francs (the estimated cost of the work) 
to be invested in an enterprise in a distant quarter of the globe was found to be an 
impossibility. And in 18(iO they were at the end of their resources. But the 
project was not to be abandoned. The company had already borrowed from the 



488 TUK SIKZ CANAL. 

Kheflivc 2,394,914 francs. Tliis money was all gone. Then they set to work upon 
him in earnest, and they persuaded him to suhscrihe for 177,662 shares of stock 
in the company. Now, the entire number of shares was only 400,000, so that, one 
may say, the canal which was to have been dug through Egyptian territory, not 
only at no cost to Egypt, luit from which she was to receive 15 per cent of the 
profits derived therefrom, and four-fifths of the cost of which were to be paid out 
to Egyptians, was now to be largely built with Egypt's money. 

The Pasha did not have the money in hand with which to pay up his sub- 
scription. But this did not matter; the affair could easily be arranged, for at that 
time Eg}-pt had no debt to speak of, and her credit was good. So it was agreed 
that he was to be charged on the company's books, to date from January 1, 1859, 
with the proportionate amount due to his stock, viz., 17,764,200 francs, from which 
was to be deducted the amount already advanced by him, 2,391,914 francs, with 
interest thereon (1,211,242 francs), so that his actual indebtedness on his called-in 
subscription was 15,248,042.88 francs; and as he had no money, he was to, and did, 
give Treasury obligations, payable — 2,305,175 francs on December 8, 1863, and the 
balance in three equal annual installments of 4,314,255.96 francs, all bearing 
interest at the rate of 10 per cent per annum from January 1, 1860. 

Therefore on the first amount he paid in all 24,705,734.60 francs, for which 
he was to receive bonds amounting to 15,248,042 francs. In other words, he was 
to pay 24,705,734.60, and was to receive, in bonds, 15,248,042 francs — a difference 
between what he paid and the sum he was to receive of nearly 10,000,000 francs. 
The rest of his subscription was to be paid at other intervals. 

The success of this negotiation gave to the company a ni'w life, and they 
pressed forward the work, not only on the main canal, liut also upon the sweet-water 
canal, which was to start from the Xile. 

Said Pasha died in January, 1863; Ismail Pasha succeeded him. The com- 
pany now needed more money, and they pounced upon him at once. They repre- 
sented to him that the supply of water in the canal from Cairo to Zagazig (on the 
way to the maritime canal) would not be sufficient to supply the canal which was 
to be dug from the point where that canal was to touch the maritime canal at Suez 
with water. They persuaded him that the construction of this canal, particularly 
in respect of the appropriation of lands belonging to individuals, would give rise 
to questions of interior administration, which might prove difficult and serious, 
and which it was important to the Government to have under its exclusive control. 
To prevent such an unhappy possibility the company agreed to renounce their right 
to construct their canal from the Xile to the maritime canal; to make the canal 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 489 

from the point where it toiiclied the maritime caual to Suez of siitRcieiit dimensions 
not only to serve the 23nrpose of irrigation, but also answer the purpose of naviga- 
tion. At the same time they retroceded to the Government the lands which had 
been given them. The plain English of which was that they could not comply with 
their engagements, and that, notwithstanding all the assistance they had received, 
they were unable to complete the work w-hich they had agreed and had commenced 
to do. The ground upon which they placed their request to be freed from that part 
of their contract, which is now under consideration, was a mere pretext. 

The Canal was to be completed by the first of March, 1864; when completed 
it was to be kept in repair by the company, but at the cost of the Government; 
it was to be properly supplied with water at all seasons; was to be subject to all 
the services which had been established upon it in their favor by the original con- 
tract, and its water was to belong to them: that is, the Government was to build 
the canal, give it to the company, keep it in thorough repair, and always well sup- 
plied with water! Instead of nothing, the Government had contributed £8,000,000 
to the enterprise (exclusively to the interest heretofore alluded to); had agreed to 
construct important works and keep them in repair, the company to derive the sole 
benefit therefrom. From being the beneficiary, the Government became the bene- 
factor. It was to do the work; the work, when completed, was to belong to the 
company! 

In the meanwhile England had seen with great and natural concern that a 
short route was being opened to the Indies, over which she was not to have the 
controlling influence. She could not but feel apprehensive lest large French pos- 
sessions in Egypt, situate as were the lauds which had been ceded to the company, 
might result to her disadvantage. The w-ork as it jDrogressed was talked about the 
world over. The moral sense of the British people took offense at the character 
of the labor which was employed upon it and the manner by which it was con- 
trolled. Accounts, not exaggerated, reached them of the "corvees" which were 
driven to the banks of the canal (for the Khedive, when he stipulated that Egyp- 
tians should be employed, also agreed to see that they should be forthcoming). The 
work was distasteful to them, not remunerative, and unhealthy. They were driven 
to it by force; they were perishing by thousands. 

Does the reader know how their tasks were performed? Those who carried 
the earth away from where it was dug were not furnished anything in which to 
carry it. They were required to stoop, to place their arms behind their backs, the 
left wrist clasped in the right hand, and then as mnch earth was placed in the 
hod thus made as it would hold. Tlicy were forced to walk away with it up a steep 



490 TlIK SI'KZ CAXAL. 

acclivity, and, when tlioy rcaiht'd thu dumping-spot, they let go their hold, straight- 
ened ii]>, and, sliaking tliemselves like a spaniel who has just come out of the water, 
relieved themselves of their burden. A large portion of them were under twelve 
years of age. Englishmen almost fancied they could hear the thud of the "cour- 
bash" as it fell upon tlie more than half-naked bodies of these wretched and de- 
fenseless people, -as it forced them to and kept them at these dreary tasks. The 
Sultan was urged to withhold his consent, and it was a long time before it wa? 
finally obtained. "Backsheesh" at length prevailed, and his consent was given, 
but it was coupled with the express provision that work by the "corvees" should 
cease. It was time; for, as has already been said, thousands of these creatures had 
died miserably, and had been buried in the sand. 

But, unhajipily for the Khedive, when the decision of the Sultan was made 
known, the company's chronic state of greed had increased, and out of this simple, 
modification made in their concession tbcy invented a scheme which produced mar- 
velous results. They had suffered a grievance! The Khedive had agreed to see 
that they were furnished with laborers. As the Sultan had prohibited him from 
carrying out his agreement in this regard, when without his consent nothing was 
liiuding, the Khedive must pay! And immediately they cried "Havoc" and let 
loose the war-dogs upon him. 

The Khedive })rotested against these demands. His protests availed him noth- 
ing. Finally an arbitration was proposed, and to this proposition he, in an unlucky 
moment, consented. 

The arbitration called u])on Louis Xapoleon. In liis liands the Khedive con- 
sidered himself safe — from oppression at least. Louis Xajioleon was liis beau-ideal 
of a man; he was his exemplar as a sovereign; he imitated him, as far as he could, 
in all things. His Imperial Majesty decided that tlie stipulation contained in the 
.second concession, to the effect that four-fifths, at least, of the labor upon the canal 
were to be done by Egyptians, was a contract between the comjiany and the Khedive, 
by which the latter bound himself to furnisli the labor; the violation of which on 
the part of the Khedive made him liable in damages, notwithstanding that everj'- 
thing relating to the concession was subject to the a]ijiroval of the Porte; and 
notwithstanding that the form of laljor had lieen clianged by the Pnrte — all of 
which the Emperor admitted. 

Upon this item, however, he mulcted him in damages 33,000,000 francs for 
labor on the canal, and 5,000,000 francs for laljor that should have been furnished 
for the completion of buildings which would bo necessary to enable the company 
to carrv on their works. 



THE SUEZ CANAL. 491 

In point of fact the dredging machines had already been constrncted, and 
vcTe at work when the decision was made known. The hand-hibor would neces- 
sarily have been abandoned. How could it have been otherwise? Egyptians are 
not beavers: they can"t work with twenty-si.\ feet of water over their heads. The 
water was pouring into the places from which the earth was being dug as fast as 
the earth was removed, and in such quantities that it was impossible to keep the 
places free. If the digging of the Canal had depended iipon manual labor, it would 
never have been accomplished. The Egyptians employed upon it would have been 
drowned again, and in about the same spot that they were when they went in pur- 
suit of Closes. 

In diminution of any demand against him upon this point, the Khedive claimed 
4,500,000 francs that had l)een curtailed, to use a mild phrase, by the company from 
the laborers he had furni.shed. This, with great show of fairness, the arljiter al- 
lowed. That is, he found that from the already miserable pay which these wretched 
people were promised, a large proportion of whom were children under twelve years 
of age, 4,500,000 francs had been filched! 

The Turkish afFront consisted in the Khedive having given to a French com- 
pany everything it asked; the French justice consisted in making him pay 84,000,- 
000 for having done so! He sued for peace, and begged for mercy, and finally 
agreed to jjay 30,000,000, if the company would go away and never come to him 
for more. To this the company finally agreed, liut they rounded liim off by mak- 
ing him pay them 10,000,000 francs for a piece of property they had purchaised 
not a very great while before for 1,180,000 francs! To pay this last amount, being 
without money, the Khedive gave the coupons which were attached to his canal 
bonds, running down to the year 1895, the face value of which runs up to 135,000,- 
000 francs! These bonds his necessities subsequently compelled him to sell to 
England. He was obliged to assume the payment of the coupons which he had 
taken from them, which amounts to nearly £200,000 jjer annum. xVdd these dif- 
ferent sums together and it will be seen that (inclusive of the subscription to stock) 
the Suez Canal will have cost Egypt some 500,000,000 francs, or largely over what 
it was estimated the entire work would cost, and which it did cost! 

Strange the places Fate chooses from which to fly her arrows! It was the 
CDuntry whose peoiile had conceived and carried out this gigantic fraud (the foun- 
dation of Egypt's financial ruin) which pushed the late Viceroy from his stool and 
drove him, an exile, out of his country. 

But the Canal was comjjleted at last. The pageant which inaugurated the 
opening of the great route to the use of the world is known to us all. How 



492 TllK sri:Z LA.NAJ-. 

strangers flocked to see the triumph, as it was considered, of engineering skill: 
how the Empress came from France to grace the ceremony with her presence; how 
she was attended by princes and their trains; how, on the occasion of her going to 
Cairo, a road was made to the Pyramids to enable her to ride out to them without 
fatigue; how a kiosk was erected near their base in whicli she was to repose after 
Iier journey, from the windows of which she might view those splendid monuments 
without being subjected to the sun"s powerful rays; how fetes were given; how 
presents were distributed, open handed and on all sides, and all at the Viceroy's 
expense — how like, indeed, it was to a fairy pantomime in Eastern lands, is known 
as well to those who kejrf themselves informed upon the current events of the day 
as to those who participated in the splendid pageants. 

In one sense, at least, the Khedive had cause for self-congratulation. Both as 
regards ancient and modern times, his country ijossessed the grandest monuments 
which have ever been erected by the hand of man or spared by the hand of Time; 
and in respect to the first he had largely contributed, and his name would be asso- 
ciated with it forever. 

Jf. de Lesseps started out with the proposition that lie could join the two seas 
at an expense of 200,000,000 francs. The Canal cost the subscribers to its stock 
that amount. In addition it received from the Khedive 457,457,306 francs. 



CHAPTER HI. 
THE NICARAGUA CANAL. 

Senator Morgan's Strong Rica for an American Canal — The Claim that the Nica- 
ragua Route. Though Longer than the Panama. Is More Practicahle — 
Estimates of Enormous Special Advantages to America, Both Military 
and Commercial — Some Interesting Statements of the Costs and Profits of 
the Suez Canal and Their Bearing Upon the Nicarasiua Canal — The Shares 
That the British Bonglit in the Suez Canal for £4,000,000 Are Worth 
£20,000,000 — The Opposition to the Nicaragua Line in Congress Is Rather 
Against the ^laritinie Company than Opposed to the Enterprise Itself — 
The Views df Senators Pettigrew, Caffery and Teller. 

Senator Morgan in his report from the Committee on Foreign Relations in 
ISOG, referred to the transit Ijctween the eastern coast of AnTerica and the eastern 
coast of Asia as the shortest and most open route of navigation, and said more ton- 
nage would pass through the Nicaragua than the Suez Canal. He added: 

"The trade hetween these countries will he more direct than it is now, with 
London as the common point of distribution, and will therefore be cheaper than 
the present system. The Nicaraguan Canal >vill thus be given the preference over 
tlie Suez Canal by merchants and navigators. When we add to this the trafBc that 
will pass in ships between the eastern and western coasts of the American hemi- 
sphere, theamount of tonnage that will pass through the Nicaraguan Canal must 
be largely in excess of that which will find its way through the Suez Canal." 

"The ship's journey around the Horn" is a distress to commerce that the 
civilization of the age requires to be removed, and tlie route through Nicaragua is 
the only possible remedy for this univAsal evjl. 

"It is not too much to say that this condition, so easy to -be remedied, will be 
a reproach to the men of this age if some active and decided movement is not made 
to relieve against it. To point out the dangers, hardships, loss of time, and the 
destruction of life and property incident to this only waterway connecting the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, which must be navigated in the roughest seas and the 
most inhospitable climate in all the world, is only to repeat the experience of sea- 
faring men for ages past, and to evoke a prayer for them that the United States 
will do its obvious duty toward them." 

The Senator referred to the posts of the British on the North Pacific and in the 
Bermudas and at Halifax, and said: 

"From these the most powerful ships of war can assail our harbors, and retire 

493 



494 TTIK XICARAGUA CANAL. 

to cover in case of necessity, while the United States must double Cape Horn in 
sending assistance from our eastern to our western coast. 

"^'ith the canal at our command we need not have two fleets to protect our 
coasts, as we are now compelled to do, at a cost already excessive and greatly to be 
increased. Withmit the canal we are. relatively, in a situation of deplorable weak- 
ness." 

The most interesting ])art of the able and venerable Senator's report is his 
comparison of the Nicaragua and Suez canals. We quote him on this subject: 

"WIr'U ]irivate enterprise in Southern Europe first addressed itself to the task 
of o])ening a sea level canal through the Isthmus of Suez, there was no lesson of 
experience to guide the movement or to assure its success. After a time the Khe- 
dive of Egypt, without the firman of his suzerian, the Sultan of Turkey, supported 
the undertaking, and put heavy burdens on his people. 

"This wise and heroic decree of tlie ruler of a government nearly relapsed into 
barbarism secured the Suez Canal and should have secured the inviolable independ- 
ence of his country. But the value of the canal to commercial and political aspira- 
tions for dominion attracted the cupidity of Great Britain and has drawn that great 
and costly work and the independence of Egypt into the grasp of that Empire. 

"If it shall result, from our indifference or dread of expansion in the direction 
of national duty and of self-preservation, that Great Britain or any other European 
power shall get the control of the concession that we have, so far, refused, the 
result is even now jilainly manifest, that the Central American States will repeat 
the experience of Egypt. 

"Then we shall have our country broken in its coast line of trade and defences, 
by a European power, not in violation of the ^lonroe Doctrine, but this v/ill be d'one 
in the name of these re})ublics on and near tlie line of the canal." 

"The Suez Canal is eighty-seven miles long, sixty-six of which are actual canal, 
the other twenty-one miles being lake navigation. The canal and its appurtenances 
were completed on or about the first of January, 1S70, and cost about $91,000,000. 
Since that time there have been expended for betterments and improvements, in- 
cluding the deepening of the canal, about $24,000,000 more; bringing the total cost 
of the canal up to about $115,000,000. The canal was originally twenty-.six feet 
deep. Its ]irescnt depth is twenty-eight feet. The canal to-day is capitalized at 
about $90,500,000 in stock and obligations. The dilTercnce between the cost and 
its present capitalization in stock and bonds was made uji by receipts from various 
sources applied to construction and improvement. It is commonly re])orted that 
the actual cost of construction diil not exceed $50.()()0,000." 



THE NK'AKAiaA (ANAL, 495 

In 1891 the gross reccijits of the Suez Canal were $83,421,504, and the actual 
net revenues of the comjiany for a series of years past has been upwards of $12,- 
000,000 annually. The net profits in 1892 were 41,728,543 francs, or about $8,345,- 
000, and tlie dividends declared for said year were 19.8 per cent, including the 
taxes retained for the sinking fund. 

The shares of the company, originally is.sued at 500 francs each, are quoted on 
the Paris Bourse at 2,692.50 francs. The shares of the Suez Canal held by the 
English Government and purchased for £4,()00,(Hi0 are worth to-day over £19,000,- 
000 in the open market. 

The business of 1892 and 1893 suffered from the general commercial depres- 
sion throughout the world, and was lighter than that done in 1891. In the said 
last mentioned year the net profits were 49,910,892 francs, or about $9,800,000, and 
the dividends declared on the stock that year amounted to 22.4 per cent. 

The effect of the Suez Canal upon the commerce of the world is apparent 
from the fact that whereas in 1870, the first full year of its operation, there jjassed 
through the canal 486 vessels, registering 436,600 tons, the number of vessels pass- 
ing in 1891 was 4,207, registering 8,700,000 tons. The most significant fact in 
this enormous increase is that the average size of the vessels using the canal in 
1870 was but little over 1,300 register, while in 1891 it had increased to over 2,090 
tons, and in 1892 to 2,200 tons. 

"The outside limit of the cost of the Xicaragnan Canal is $100,000,000, but the 
committee assume, in correspondence with the estimates that have been so care- 
fully made and revised, that the cost will not exceed $70,000,000, and that, if it 
should, there will be a fund in the treasury of the company from the sales of stock 
remaining undisposed of equal to $16,000,000, in all $86,000,000. This stock will 
go to par as soon as the construction of the canal is resumed, if not as soon as Con- 
gress has provided for the guarantee of the bonds of the company." 

The objections to the project that have been so strenuously urged upon Con- 
gress are strongly stated by Senator Pettigrew, and we quote him: 

"One hundred and fifteen million dollars will not Iniild tin-: canal. In my 
opinion $215,000,000 will not build it. 

"But when it is built, if constructed by the United States alone, we must 
either make it a neutral canal, unfortified, to be used by all the nations of the 
world, or else we must fortify it at an expense of hundrecls of millions more, and 
we must guard this 176 miles of canal in order to jirevent its destruction, for its 
great embankments can be destroyed by a single person in a few hours of time with 
modern explosives. If it is not guarded, or if it is not fortified, our fleet, having 



49(; THE XK'AKAGUA (ANAL. 

readied Lake Xicaragua, could be imprisoned Ly the efTorts of one man at each end 
of the canal along these enormous embankments seventy feet in height. There- 
fore I believe it is wise that we should deky the disposition of this matter until this 
whole question can he investigated. 

"Further than that, I believe it would be wiser for the United States to join 
with the other nations of the world and complete the canal at Panama. The canal 
at Panama is two-fifths completed already. The distance across the Isthmus at that 
jwint is forty-six miles, as against one hundred and seventy-six miles at Nicaragua. It 
takes fourteen liours to go from ocean to ocean at Piinama. and it takes forty-four 
hours at Nicaragua. 

'"Therefore, in view of the fait ihat the Panama (anal is sure to be built — for 
no great enterprise was e\er abandoned where so much money has been expended as 
has been expended at Panama — the Nicaragua Canal, our private canal, will never 
be iised by the ships of the world. There is no occasion for using it. No vessel 
will cross at this point. A vessel will have to spend forty-four hours in crossing, 
ulien it can cross in fourteen hours at another place; and the commereral value of 
the canal will lie absolutely destroyed if the other canal is completed. 

"Four thousand men are at work to-day on the Panama Canal, and only twenty- 
three miles more of that canal remain to be built. The excavation for tlie rest of it is 
nearly done. Immense excavations have already been made along the twenty-three 
miles yet to be excavated. The money they are expending there is being expended 
with the most modern means of excavation and with great economy and great skill, 
rvery single engineering problem has been settled. It has been determined beyond 
question that it is entirely practicable to build an excellent canal at Panama. 

"The problems with regard to the Nicaragua Canal have not been settled. There 
is no report before this Imdy or before the AiiuTican people to show that this is a 
practical route, or that a canal can be built upon it. Oiii' own engineers, who were 
sent there at an expense of $350,000, have not yet made their report to this body. 

"Now. what is the ])roposition? To cxj^end a vast sum of money to purchase an 
old concession wliirli is valueless: to umlertake to l>uild a canal which we say shall 
be our lanal. 

"The Suez Canal is owned by the nations of Europe. Its neutrality is guaran- 
teed by all the nations of Europe, and if the vessels of two nations at war with each 
other choose to pass through it, they can do so under the terms of that guaranty, 
onlv the vessel which first enters must first leave, and has twenty-four hours for 
dejiarture before tho vessel of the other nation at war with her can leave the canal, 
thus guaranteeing it against danger of conflict or destruction; and the canal across 



THE NICARAGUA CANAL. 497 

the Isthmxis of Panania must and will l)e guiticd, governed, controlled and guaran- 
teed in the same way. 

"It is all nonsense to talk abont our building, fortifying and owning a canal of 
our own so long as it is a commercial canal, but if we wish one simply through w^hich 
to jMss our war ships, through w^hich none of the commerce of the world will go, if 
the canal is to be our canal, and you are to spend $400,000,000 or $500,000,000 
upon it, you are undertaking to start a project without that intelligent consideration 
which it should receive." 

Senator Cafl'ery said of the scheme before the Senate in the session of 1898-99, 
that it came down to this: 

"A man buys a tract of ground in the face of a cloud upon the title, in the 
face of claims upon the part of the original grantor, claims of record that the title is 
void. Does the Senator from Arkansas hold that the way to get the land, and to get 
possession of it, is to buy a void title? You are buying nothing but a lawsuit. Your 
concession is about to lapse. The concessionary party says so, and it says so with 
authority and with reason. It is about to lapse, not only from the lapse of time, but 
from the various violations of the concession that have been set out. 

"How is the construction of the canal facilitated by holding under such a title ? 
It is either void or it is voidable. You are met with difficulties at every step. You 
are met with contentions all along the line. If that is the way to expedite the build- 
ing of the canal I should like to know it. 

"My contention is that these concessions held by the United States as a foreign 
power justify the statement made by the minister of Nicaragua that they are for- 
feited; not voidable, but void. When the United States constructs the canal, if it 
ever should, under these concessions^and I do not think it ever will — what hap- 
pens then? All the police jurisdiction over the canal, all authority to try an\ 
contention or litigation growing out of contracts made with reference to the canal. 
every species of jurisdiction, is reserved by Nicaragua. The United States then can 
be summoned before the courts of Nicaragua upon matters of ordinary contract, 
for when I speak of the United States in this matter I do so because the concessions 
are virtually transferred to them. 

"The position that the United States would place itself in by this proceeding 
is utterly inconsistent with the dignity of a fourth-class power. You buy nothing 
but lawsuits, and when you have the canal it is subject to the annoyance of all 
such jurisdiction as Nicaragua claims and wliich she will exercise. 

"It will not do to try to obscure these matters. When we crawl beneath the 
wings of the Maritime Canal Company we take all the burdens of that company so 



408 tup: xicaeagua canal. 

far as the title goes. The United States is inliibited from exercising such pleiiarj 
jiirisdiction and power and l;aving such rights in the premises as the United States 
ought to have. 

"This canal ought to be built. It is the one great national necessity of the 
present time, joining the waters of the two oceans together by a great national high- 
way. It will double the commercial power of the United States. It will cut by half 
the distances from our trade centers to the distant lands that we hope to supply 
witli (lur manufactures and our products. It will reduce the land transportation 
rates of the entire United States by a considerable per cent. It will double the 
power of the American navy. It will greatly assist in the coast defense on both 
oceans. For every consideration I think this canal ought to be built. I think we 
should get aliout it just as speedily as possible, and that no vote should be cast in 
the Senate which would postpone to another session of Congress all possibility of 
commencing action. 

•'Therefore, I shall vote for the bill, and, as I say, in the hope that out of the 
joint wisdom of the two Houses will come a measure that will be better, more 
practicable, than the one which is now pending here. I hope the measure when it 
becomes a law will provide for the construction of the canal by the Government of 
the I'nited States as a Government measure." 

Senator Teller said of the Nicaragua Canal that it was the merits of tlu' com- 
jiany and not (if the canal that were always discussed. There were between three 
lliousand and four tliousand men now employed on the Panama Canal, the length 
of which was forty-si.x miles, and that of the shortest Nicaragua route, one hundred 
and seventy-five miles. He thought the whole question should be left with the 
President of "the United States, putting it in the hands of competent men, could 
determine whether or not it was better to build the Panama Canal, which we can 
now build without any difficulty, because that concern is anxious that we should 
take it off their hands and built that canal. 

"I know nothing about the Panama Canal except what I have seen in the 
public press, but it does seem to me before we determine that we will build the 
Nicaragua Canal we ought to determine whether it may not be to our interest, and 
whether it may not be money in our pockets to build the Panama Canal. Everybody 
can see that a canal which is only forty-six miles long must be in many respects 
verv much more valuable than a canal which is one hundred and seventy-five miles 
long. 

"When this canal is built, if we put in $125,000,000 — for I repeat that, in my 
judgment, it will cost $200,000,000 or more — we ought to have tlve power to pro- 



THE NICARAGUA CANAL. 49D 

tect it. Tlicre is no provision in tlie bill that the Government of the United States 
can protect the Nicaragua Canal. What right will we as a Government have to 
fortify the coast? What right will we have to put our forts or our army or oui 
sii])ervisorf; to watch the canal off of the little narrow strip which this concession 
gives to the ^lai'itime Canal Company? 

"In the San Francisco dam there are practically six miles of bank, which 
in some places reaches seventy feet high. It is in a country where it will be most 
difficult to maintain a dam of any character. I venture to say that a shrewd, dis- 
honest man by an e.\]ienditurc of .$100 could break that embankment in such a way 
that the canal could not be re)iaired in the six months in whicli it is provided that 
it may be repaired, or that it shall be forfeited to the, Government of Nicaragua 
Wherever you build a canal on any of these proposed routes, whether it be on the 
old Jlaritime Canal Company's line, or whether it be on the line that I understand 
is likely to be jiroposed by this new commission, these dams will necessarily be a 
feature of it. Therefore, I repeat, the Government of the United States ought to be 
authorized, before going to this great expenditure of money, to put some kind of 
guards over this canal, some supervision of it which you are not authorized to do 
and vou cannot do under the concessions made to the Maritime Canal Company." 




7\ 




BOOK VI. 



THE PROBLEM OF EXPANSION. BY THE GREAT- 
EST ADVOCATES AND OPPONENTS. TO 
WHICH IS ADDED THE HISTORY 
OF EXPANSION. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The greatest novelty in our national experience grew out of the Spanish war, 
in the conquest of the capital city of the Philippines, and the hopelessness of 
the Spanish position in that archipelago. We were constrained to occupy and 
possess for military and international reasons the ancient Spanish seat of power, 
with its venerable walls and broad and once shady boulevards, its old forts with 
artillery of another age, and the latest style batteries equipped with modern guns 
from the foimdries of Germany and Spain — the famous botanical garden and astro- 
nomical observatory, its stately churches, the palaces provided for officials, the 
flimsy habitations of the natives and the immigrants from Asia, and the solid 
business establishments, chiefly English and Chinese. The destruction of the 
Spanish fleet by Americans on May-day was thorough work so far as Manila Bay 
was concerned, but there were at least ten gunboats unaccounted for— doubtless 
lurking among the islands — and if these had not been awed by the presence of 
Dewey's ships they would have been free to have assailed our commerce with Asia, 
inflicting heavy loss and encouraging Spanish animosity. So particular have been 
the people of the f nited States not to pick up any of the choice islands of the 
seas, that, though we have three great States and one huge Territory fronting 
on the Pacific Ocean and must, in our geograjjliical situation continue to have 
large and growing commercial interests on the opposite or Asiatic shore, the 
Spanish war found us without any naval station — without a dock or a coal-yard 
nearer Asia than Honolulu — a good illustration of the incompetency of the non- 
expansion policy. The American Admiral had to make choice between leaving 
the scene of his triumph and the evident sphere of his duty, and holding his own 
in the bay that he possessed by force of arms. He did not hesitate, but asked 
the Government for aid to confirm his conquest. lentil recent expressions in 
Congress and by some citizens of unusual eminence elsewhere, we should have 
said that the entertainment for a moment in an American mind of anything so 
pusillanimous as running away from the waters of Manila after strewing them with 
the wrecks of the Spanish Armada, was absolutely inconceivable. The President 
of the United States, of course, never dreamed of ordering the victorious fleet that 
shed a sea of glory iipon the country, to flee from the conquest out of a sentimental 
regard for the susceptibilities of the Spaniards or the Filipinos or of any other crea- 

505 



506 IXTKODUCTIOX. 

tures. There was soon experience of the insolence of Aguinaldo, who has no 
warrant to speak for the people of his alleged country, and whose actual insignifi- 
cance made plain would startle any one who has accepted the theory of his great- 
ness. Admiral George Dewey early reported tlie threatening attitude of this puny 
personage. The American Consuls who had given him aid and comfort and 
believed his little stories of gratitude to Americans were speedily embarrassed 
by him, and reported to the State Department his '"half devil and half child" 
fantasies. He wanted to treat the American Army as a part of his forces, and 
was supercilious and studiously malicious toward those to whom he was indebted 
for his return to the land from which he had departed, leaving his beloved people 
to their fate — a certified check for Mexican dollars from a bank in Manila to a 
bank in Hongkong the inducement for his patriotic emigration. It has been held 
to be an evidence of his integrity and to make him out a marvelously proper man — 
a patriotic statesman of heroic mold — that he did not divide this cash contribution 
for which he left the country he adores, with the crowd of thirty-two Philippine 
patriots, and keep the lion's share for himself. He actually held on to the money 
except a small bribe for one friend to discontinue a lawsuit, and finally turned it 
over to Agoncillo, the great foreign ambassador who is traveling in Europe to 
procure assistance for the expulsion of the tyrannical Americans from his native 
land. Agiiinaldo once had l.een a prominent insurgent and the pigmies in the 
wilderness had confidence in him because it was their faith that he had "a charm" 
so potent that neither lead nor poison could deprive him of life. But he had made 
jieace for $400,000 in hand — Mexican dollars — and $400,000 more promised by the 
Sjjaniards; and about the time he got the first installment — and that is all he 
ever got — there was a change of Spanish Captain-Generals and the treaty that 
Aguinaldo had made with the one who returned to Madrid was a subject of hilarity 
there. Nobody paid other attention to it. That is one of the ways, and the 
favored one, the Spaniards had of putting down a rebellion. They bribe the 
jiatriot leaders to go away on conditions that everything shall be done for the 
dear people. It is easy to promise, as there is nothing to do. Xothing is done, 
of course. Nobody expects it. The transaction is closed when the first install- 
ment of money is paid as a benevolent "concession" to the retiring patriot. Aguin- 
aldo is not a man of great gifts, but he did know something of the Spanish char- 
acter, and he must have known why and for what he went away. He hadn't got 
back when Dewey smashed the Spanish fleet, but there were insurgents carrying 
on the usual war of the Spanish colonists against the mother country, and Aguin- 
aldo had ceased to he a factor. He was a '"has been." But our Consuls had heard 



INTKODUCTION. 507 

of him, and they thought he might tlo something and showered Dewey with 
information abont him, and finally the Consul at Singapore got a dispatch from 
the then Commodore that was an invitation to Agiiinaldo to assist in the war with 
Spain. His reappearance was nnder American auspices, and he smoothed the way 
with many promises and protestations that he was substantially a good American. 
At first the Filipinos did not seem to catch on to his mission, but the splendor 
of the American victory cast a light upon them and they associated him with the 
illumination. Then he began to be a great man, and immediately wanted to 
dictate to the Filipinos and the Americanos. Then came native swarms out of the 
woods ^ipon development of his transferred prestige, and it does not seem unlikely 
they attributed the annihilation of the Spanish fleet to Aguinaldo, who is as great 
a naval as military man, and therefore they resented the unnecessary appearance, 
according to the light the Tagalos had, of American troops, who touched the 
tenderness of the insurgents by trampling on their sacred soil. The little yellow 
dictatorial creature, inflamed with personal grandeur, thought himself entitled to 
give or refuse permission to Americans to place their feet upon his holy land, 
and he held it was necessary before permitting this desecration to have official 
information as to what the armed Americans proposed to do when they got ashore. 
This is the sum and substance of Aguinaldo's voluminous correspondence with 
General Thomas Anderson — a mass of Filipino literature (the Dictator's part of 
it) that v.-ill forever pass as the premium performance of impertinence. In that 
regard it is almost superhuman. But the Dictator, whose professions of fondness 
for liberty have so fascinated an order of statesmanship in this country — the Dicta- 
tor who parted from his loved country and fond people comforted with a certified 
check — this distinguished patriot who took thirty-two "compatriots" and person- 
ally conducted them to Hongkong for the sake of peace with Spain — the Spaniards 
robbed a bank to get the money — he had the fortune, after making a safe landing 
under the American flag, and setting up a sovereignty of his own at the cost of 
Americans, of accumulating a considerable force of bushwhackers. They got a 
good many cartridges from Cavite, surrounded the city and did shooting enough 
to annoy the Spaniards a good deal, as they were so cowed by Dewey that they 
stuck close to their breastworks. The Filipino siege was a case of very bad shoot- 
ing at long range — the Spaniards behind bags of mud, the Filipinos in the jungles. 
General Mcrritt arrived and landed without asking Aguinaldo whether he might, 
and was not long in disturbing the exercises of the extensive shooting match, 
which did not amount to much on either side. The Filipinos are rather fond of 
being in the mud, and firing at distant objects. The Spaniards sheltered them- 



508 I^TIUJDLCTIOX. 

selves from the rain, and, as long as the rice and tobacco held out, were satisfied 
that they were doing ver}- well. There were about 13,000 Spaniards and 14,000 
Filipinos. When the American force numbered about one-half the Filipino swarm 
General Merritt concluded to do business. The sovereign natives were right in 
the way and had scratched the ground here and tliere in their character of be- 
siegers. They had to be removed for military purposes, and didn't mind seeing 
Americans go to the front. So the town was taken. The Spaniards surrendered 
on conditions. In the articles of capitulation the faith and honor of the Army 
of the United States were made responsible for the suppression within tlie limits 
of the city of barbarism. In three days came the news of the Peace Protocol. 
The arms and ammunition of the Spaniards — 22,000 rifles and 10,000,000 car- 
tridges — were in the hands of the Americans, and, according to the convention, 
if the Americans retired the Spanish troops were to receive their arms — that is 
to say, be equipped to defend themselves. That would have been the first thing 
in order if our troops had retired. The Aguinaldo army had grand passion to loot 
Manila, incidentally murdering the Europeans, and also the Chinese who had 
possessions. Eefused this festival of liberty, the native patriots became the enemies 
of Americans. The discipline of llie Aguinaldo forces is a case of ''the cohesive 
power" of the prospect of plunder, with a chance for a massacre associated, and 
xmder this inspiration the champions of freedom and independence were sweltering 
in their venom until they assaulted our lines. Their occupation has been, up to 
(lie latest advice?, a scries of treacherous and devilish jilots. These "people" are 
likened by some of our statesmen to our Kevolutionary ancestors, and show their 
similitude to the fathers desperately attempting repeatedly to wipe out the city 
in a conflagration and accomiiany the spread of the flames by the assassination of 
all in their way of manifesting the inherent capacity of self-government. Ameri- 
cans have never had a chance to get away and the accumulating evidence is already 
ample, that the more casualties there are among the bands of liberty-lovers in the 
jungles, the better it will be for the Philippine people at large. The discussion 
of the merits of the war that has arisen from the bloody ashes of the Sjianish 
power in the Asian islands, has been of extraordinary range and interest through- 
out the world, and is to the people of the United States of overshadowing import. 
Expressions of Public Opinion in this association have been invited by those who 
have in our country the executive responsibility. We have assembled the utter- 
ances of the disputants most prominently known, and whose words appear of 
the most notable force and pertinence. We have been impartial in the selection 
and adjustment of the views of gentlemen on both sides of the question of Amer- 



INTEODUCTION. 509 

ican Expansion. Intelligent attention will demonstrate the fairness of the reports 
herewith presented of a discussion that there is every reason to believe will be as 
influential as it is itnmistakably testified the result will be of moment. The 
President of the Ignited States has invited by his policy of candor and of deference 
to the ultimate judgment of his countrymen, the most thorough consideration of 
the practical questions before the people, and unequivocally submitted for the 
public determination. There is in this book a full and fair collection of the 
opposing contentions in the high debate of citizens, unofficial as well as official. 
It is the most comprehensive that has been made and is commended as worthy 
the time and the theme. 



CHAPTER I. 

PRESIDENT M'KIXLEY FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

The Weighty Unexpected Prohlenis Before the Country — Not Our Fault that They 
Impose High Obhgation — He Opposed War — No Nation Insisting Upon 
War Can Foretell the Story of It — The President Cannot Fix the Boundaries 
of Events — We Could Xot Give Up Our Conquests to Spain — The Philip- 
pines Had to Go to Spain or Be Held by Us — We Did Xot Xeed the 
Consent of the Filipinos to a Work of Humanity — The Future of the Philip- 
pines Is in the Hands of the American People — Xo Imperial Designs Lurk 
in the American Mind — The Free Can Conquer But to Save — The Bloody 
Trenches Bring Anguish to His Heart — The Filipinos Will Be Grateful 
for American Civilization. 

President MeKinley says we have been successful in a war with a foreign power 
adding great glory to our arms — a new chapter in American history. He did not 
know why in this war this republic has unexpectedly had placed before it mighty 
problems which it must face and meet. They have come and are here and they 
could not be kept away. Many who were impatient for the conflict a year ago, ap- 
parently heedless of its larger results, were the first to cry out against the far-reach- 
ing consequences of their own act. Those of us who dreaded war most and when 
every effort was directed to prevent it, had fears of new and grave problems which 
might follow- its inauguration. 

"The evolution of events which no man could control has brought these prob- 
lems upon us. Certain it is that they have not come through any fault on our own 
part, but as a high obligation, and we meet them with clear conscience and unselfish 
purpose and with good heart resolve to undertake their solution. 

"War was declared in April, 1898, with practical unanimity by the Congress 
and, once upon us, was sustained by like unanimity among the people. There had 
been many who tried to avert it, as, on the other hand, there were many who would 
have precipitated it at an earlier date. In its prosecution and conclusion the great 
majority of our countrymen of every section believed they were fighting in a just 
cause, and at home or on sea or in the field they had part in the glorious triumphs. 
It was the war of the undivided nation. 

"Every great act in its progress from Manila to Santiago, from Guam to Porto 
Rico, met universal and hearty commendation. The protocol commanded the prac- 
tically unanimous approval of the American people. It was welcomed by every 

lover of peace beneath the flag. 

510 



PRKSIDENT MlvINLEY FOK EXPANSION. 511 

''Till' I'liilipiiines, like Culia and Porto Pico, were eutrusted to our hands by 
tlie war, and to lluit great trust, under tlie providence of God and in the name of 
human progress and civilization, we are committed. It is a trust we have not 
sought; it is a trust from which we will not flinch. The American people will hold 
up the hands of their servants at home, to whom they commit its execution, while 
Dewey and Otis and the brave men whom they command will have the support of 
the country in ujiholding our flag where it now floats, the symbol and assurance of 
liberty and justice. 

"AVhat nation was ever able to write an accurate programme of the war upon 
which it was entering, much less decree in advance the scope of its results? Con- 
gress can declare war, but a higher power decrees its bounds and fixes its relations 
and responsibilities. 

"The President can direct the movements of soldiers on the field and fleets 
upon the sea, but he cannot foresee the close of such movements or prescribe their 
limits. He cannot anticipate or avoid the consequences, Ijut he must meet them. 
No accurate map of nations engaged in war can be traced until the war is over, nor 
can the measure of responsibility be fixed till the last gun is fired and the verdict 
embodied in the stipulations of peace. 

"AVe hear no complaint of the relations created by the war between this Gov- 
ernment and the islands of Cuba and Porto Pico. There are some, however, who 
regard the Philippines as in a different relation, but, whatever variety of views there 
may be on this phase of the question, there is universal agreement that the Philip- 
pines shall not be turned back to Spain. No true American can consent to that. 
Even if unwilling to accept them ourselves, it would have been a weak evasion of 
manly duty to require Spain to transfer them to some other power or powers and 
thus shirk our own responsibility. Even if we had had, as we did not have, the 
power to compel such a transfer, it could not have been made without the most 
serious international complications. 

"Such a course could not be thought of. And yet, had we refused to accept 
the cession of them, we should have had no power over them, even for their own 
good. We could not discharge the responsibilities upon us until these islands be- 
came ours either by conquest or treaty. 

"There was but one alternative, and that was either Spain or the United States 
in the Philippines. The other suggestions — first, that they should be tossed into 
the arena for the strife of nations, or, second, be lost in the anarchy and chaos of no 
protectorate at all — were too shameful to be considered. The treaty gave them to 
the United States. Could we have required less and done our duty? Could we, 



512 PKESIDEXT MKIXLEY FOE EXPANSION. 

after freeing the Filipinos from the domination of Spain, have left them without 
government and without power to protect life and property or to perform the inter- 
national obligations essential to an independent state? Could we have left them 
in a state of anarchy and justified ourselves in our own consciences or before the 
tribi:nal of mankind? Could we have done that in the sight of God and man? 

"Our concern was not for territory or trade or empire, but for the people whose 
interests and destiny, without our willing it, had been put in our hands. It was 
with this feeling that from the first day to the last not one word or line went from 
the Executive in Washington to our military and naval commanders at Manila or to 
our peace commissioners at Paris that did not put as the sole purpose to be kept 
in mind first after the success of our arms and the maintenance of our own honor 
the welfare and happiness and the rights of the inhabitants of the Philippine Is- 
lands. Did we need their consent to perform a great act for humanity? We had 
it in every aspiration of their minds, in every hope of their hearts. 

''Was it necessary to ask their consent to capture Manila, the capital of their 
islands? Did we ask their consent to liberate them from Spanish sovereignty or 
to enter Manila bay and destroy the Spanish sea power there? AVe did not ask 
these; we were obeying a higher moral obligation which rested on us and did not 
require anybody's consent. We were doing our duty by them with the consent of 
our own consciences and with the approval of civilization. Every present obliga- 
tion has been met and fulfilled in tlie expulsion of Spanish sovereignty from tlieir 
islands, and while the war that destroyed it was in progress we could not ask tlieir 
views. Nor can we now ask their consent. 

''Indeed, can anyone tell me in what form it could be marslialed and ascer- 
tained until peace and order, so necessary to reign of reason, shall be secured and 
established? A reign of terror is not the kind of rule under which right action 
and deliberate judgment are possible. It is not a good time for the liberator to sub- 
mit important questions concerning liberty and government to the liberated while 
they are engaged in shooting down their rescuers. 

"We have now ended the war with Spain. The treaty has been ratified by 
more than two-thirds of the Senate of the United States and by the judgment of 
nine-tenths of its people. No nation was ever more fortunate in war or more hon- 
orable in negotiations in peace. 

"Spain is now eliminated from the problem. It remains to ask wliat we shall 
do now. I do not intrude upon the duties of Congress or seek to anticipate or 
forestall its action. I only say that the treaty of peace, honorably secured, having 
been ratified by the United States and, as we confidently expect, shortly ratified in 



PEESIDENT M'KINLEY FOR EXPANSION. 513 

Spain, Congress will have the power and I am sure the purpose to do what in good 
morals is right and just and humane for these people in distant seas. 

"It is sometimes hard to determine what is best to do and the best thing to do 
is oftentimes the hardest. The prophet of evil would do nothing, because he flinches 
at sacrifice and effort, and to do nothing is easiest and involves the least cost. On 
tliose who have things to do there rests a responsibility wdiich is not on those who 
have no obligations as doers. 

'"If the doubters were in a majority there would, it is true, be no labor, no sacri- 
fice, no anxiety and no burden raised or carried; no contribution from our ease 
and purse and comfort to the welfare of others, or even to the extension of our 
resources to the welfare of ourselves. There would be ease, but, alas! there would 
be nothing done. 

"But grave problems come in the life of a nation, however much men may 
seek to avoid them. They come without our seeking, why, we do not know, and it. is 
not always given us to know, but the generation on. which they are forced cannot 
avoid the responsibility of honestly striving for their solution. We may not know 
precisely how to solve them, but we can make an honest effort to that end and, if 
made in conscience, justice and honor, it will not be in vain. 

'The future of the Philippine Islands is now in the hands of the American 
people. Until the treaty was ratified or rejected the executive department of this 
Government could only pre.serve the peace and protect life and property. That 
treaty now commits the free and enfranchised Filipinos to the guiding hand and the 
liberalizing influences, the generous sympathies, the uplifting education, not of their 
American masters, but of their American emancipators. No one can tell to-day 
what is best for them or for us. I know no one at this hour who is wise enough 
or sufficiently informed to determine what form of government will best subserve 
their interests and our interests, their and our well being. 

'•'If we knew everything by intuition — and I sometimes think there are those 
who believe that if we do not they do — we should not need information, but, un- 
fortunately, most of us are not in that happy state. The whole subject is now with 
Congress, and Congress is the voice, the conscience and the judgment of the Amer- 
ican people. Upon their judgment and conscience can we not rely? I believe in 
them, I trust them. I know of no better or safer human trilnmal than the people. 

"Until Congress shall direct otherwise, it will be the duty of the Executive to 
possess and hold the Philippines, giving to the people thereof peace and beneficent 
government, affording them every opportunity to prosecute their lawful pursuits, 
encouraging them in thrift and industry, making them feel and know we are their 



r,u PEESIDEAT MKl^LEY iOli EXPA^'.SIOX. 

friends, not their enemies; that their good is our aim; that their welfare is our 
welfare, but that neither their aspirations nor ours can be realized until our au- 
thority is acknowledged and unquestioned. 

"That the inhabitants oi tiie Philippines will be benefited by this Republic is 
my unshaken belief; that they will have a kindlier government under our guidance 
and that they will be aided in every possible way to be self-respecting and self-gov- 
erning people is as true as that the American people love liberty and have an abiding 
faith in their own government and tlieir own institutions. 

"No imperial designs lurk in the American mind. They are alien to American 
sentiment, thought and purpose. Our priceless principles undergo no change under 
a tropical sun. They go with the fiat: 

" 'Why read ye not the changeless truth. 
The free can conquer but to save?" 

"If we can benefit these jemote peoples, who will (Ijject? 11 in the years of 
the future they are established in government under law and liberty, who will regret 
our perils and sacrifices, who will not rejoice in our heroism and luunanity? Always 
perils and always after them safety; always darkness and clouds, but always shining 
through them the light and the sunshine; always cost and sacrifice, but always after 
tliem the fruition of liberty, education and civilization. 

"I have no light or knowledge not common to my coiintvyinen. I do not 
prophesy. The present is all-absorbing to me, but I cannot bound my vision by the 
blood-stained trenches around Manila, where every red drop, whether from the veins 
of an American soldier or a misguided Filipino, is anguish to my heart, but by the 
broad range of future years, when that group of islajids, under the impulse of the 
year just past, shall have become the gems and glories of those tropical seas, a land 
of plenty and of increasina: possibilities, a people redeemed from savage indolence 
and habits, devoted to the arts of peace, in touch with the commerce and trade of all 
nations, enjoying the blessings of freedom, of civil and religious liberty, of educa- 
tion and of homes, and whose children and children's children shall for ages hence 
bless the American republic because it emancipated and redeemed their fatherland 
and set them in the pathway of the world's best civilization." 



/crAV/^..j3^ 



CHAPTER II. 
ANDEEW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. • 

Mr. Carnegie Assails the President and the Secretary of the Treasury for Changing 
Their Opinions as to Expansion — Donbts the President's Convictions and 
Says Gage Is Not a ILanufacturer — Carnegie Desires Commercial Expansion 
— He Wants the President to Listen to the London Times — The Open Door 
Will Antagonize American Labor — Predicts Death-Blow to "Imperialism" 
— Says No Citizen Can Be Deprived of the Right to Send His Products to 
Any Territory Under Our Flag Free of All Tariffs Within the Republic's 
Domain — Trade of Philippines Cannot Be American — Spain Gets $20,- 
000,000 for a Great Relief — Trilnite to the Personal Virtues of the President 
— A Reply to Mr. Murat Ilalstead's Address at Homestead. 

Andrew Carnegie opened a crusade against the antagonism of the Philippines 
hy the statement "Half the danger would be over" if the people knew the Presi- 
dent had convictions on the subject "to which he would stand." He added Sec- 
retary Gage was a "convert to imperialism," and had "fortunately given us the 
reason." And Mr. Carnegie added: 

. "Secretary Gage has not only told us that he has changed his views and is a 
convert to imperialism, but he has fortunately given us the reason. All that is nec- 
essary is that our public men should give reasons for the Republic abandoning the 
policy which has made her great. He accepts the dangers and cost of imperialism 
against his own wishes for the sake of commercial expansion. 

"Now, Secretary Gage has never manufactured anything nor exported anything 
— he is neither in manufacturing nor in commerce. I am in both. Our concern is 
to-day the largest manufacturer in the world in its line, and I believe it is also to-day 
the largest exporter of manufactures in the United States. 

"We have within two years begun to send our steel- to all parts of the world. 
Our sales reach into the millions of dollars. We have our London house now as 
we have in New York. The foreign business is growing by leaps and bounds. Now, 
one of the reasons why I oppose imperialism — the acquisition of the Philippines, 
for instance — is commercial exj)ansion. 

"The reason that Secretary Gage gives for acquiring the Philippines is the 
reason why I would not. He believes it woidd be favorable to commercial expan- 
sion; I know that it would be detrimental. 

"The Secretary gave no reason for thinking that the acquisition of distant pos- 

515 



r.lG AXDKi:\V CAKXEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

sessions would increase our foreign trade. Permit me to state reasons why it would 
not increase but decrease it. 

"Foreign trade rests upon peace and security; the waters must be calm, dis- 
turbing influences absent, to foster trade in foreign parts. 

"Two weeks ago British consols fell 2^; there was a rumor of war with France; 
money needed by manufacturers and exporters rose to double what it had been. 
Our financial operations in London covering our foreign trade were immediately 
transferred to New York, which for the time became the financial center of the 
world. Money exchange was furnished us cheaper here than London could give. 
The quiver that went through the commercial world in Britain arrested commerce 
at many points. New York was secure beyond the zone of disturbance; there was 
no war rumor whiili afl'ected the Republic. Great Britain was within the zone and 
her Inisiness was disturbed. 

"Should we undertake to hold the Philippines we immediately place the whole 
Republic within the zone of wars and rumors of wars, and the rumor of war, it 
must be remembered, is in itself destructive to commerce. It was only rumors of 
war that threw us from London back to New York. 

"If Secretary Gage is not satisfied with the commercial expansion which this 
country is enjoying what will satisfy this man? I have seen nothing like it in my 
lifetime, nor have I read of anything comparable to it. 

"Without distant possessions, the Republic, solid, compact, safe from the zone 
of war disturbance, has captured the world's markets for nuiny products, and only 
needs a continuance of peaceful conditions to have the industrial world at its feet. 
Our exports now exceed the exports of Great Britain. What does Secretary Gage 
mean by talking of commercial expansion to come, when tlie (piestion to-day is, how 
shall we meet the commercial expansion crowding upon us? 

"If the Secretary of the Treasury has time to spare let me suggest that he can 
use it to better advantage studying how to give to our exporters suitable steamship 
lines to carry away the trafllc that is off'ered. This is the one great want of the 
T'nited States in the way of commercial expansion, not the management of bar- 
barous regions involving race troubles far exceeding those we have at home. 

"There is another point that Secretaiy Gage fortunately has to consider. I 
should like to ask the Administration one question wliich tlie Presidfiit and Cabinet 
must soon think of. 

"Are the Philippines to be considered part of the American Republic, as Porto 
Rico is, and are we to keep them for ourselves as we have Porto Rico, excluding the 
world from equal trade rights with them? 



ANDKEW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 517 

"Sujjijose President McKinley says 'Yes, I have always stood for American 
labor; I am its great champion; I am a protectionist to the core.' 

"I begin to grow doubtful about the President having convictions upon any 
subject; but if he has a conviction it is this, that it is the duty of an American 
President to take care of American labor. Well, he will have done so when he an- 
nounces that he is going to obey the Constitution of tlie United States, although 
in these days the Constitution seems to be, as Tim Camjibell once said to President 
Cleveland, 'a small thing to stand between friends." 

"But suppose the President is true to the Constitution and his oath to support 
it, then there is free trade between all parts of the United States and the Philip- 
pines as there is to Porto Rico — he has stood true there — but there is a high tariil 
between the trade of all other nations and the Philippines. 

"I believe the President will be driven to hold this position. What ensues? 
War! Britain is our best friend to-day, but only upon condition that we keep 'open 
door" for her in the Philippines and in all other of our distant possessions. 

"The London Times has already given a strong hint upon this subject in re- 
ferring to the President's bottling up Porto Rico. 

"Let the President listen to this from the London Times editorial: 'English- 
men have seen with ungrudging satisfaction the entrance of America on the path 
of imperial expansion which they have themselves trodden with such conspicuous 
success. But it must be confessed that a considerable strain is put upon our sym- 
pathy by such blunders as the order regulating the trade of Porto Rico, which our 
correspondent cites and wliich reads as if it were borrowed from our own navigation 
acts which the Americans themselves found so oppressive." 

"The most sensitive chord of Britain is its foreign trade; upon that it depends. 
Let the President of the United States once show that the American system is to be 
extended to the Philippines, and that Secretary Gage had some foundation for his 
idea of 'commercial expansion' for the advantage of American labor, and it will not 
be necessary for Britain openly to intervene. 

"France, Germany and Russia, as is well known, are opposed to America enter- 
ing upon possessions in the far East. Those nations combined drove Japan out of 
Corea; they will drive the United States out of the Philippines, always provided 
Britain agrees to do what she did with Japan — occupy a neutral position. 

"But I go further than this. She will require the United States to agree to 
keep the 'open door,' as she required Germany to do. Of course, Germany has 
agreed to keep the open door in lier Eastern possessions. She wouldn't have any 



f,18 ANDREW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

if she had not. Neither will the United States, for let it l)e noted that ~0 per cent 
of the total trade of the Philippines is to-day British. 

"I have spoken of European nations, but tlure is a nation quite near the Phil- 
ippines with which the United States would find it most difficult to deal at so great 
a distance, for, remember it is a question of naval strength. Here is what the min- 
ister of Ja])an said the other day: 

" 'Every year its trade'with the Philippines has increased until now it has be- 
come of very respectable proportions. Naturally my Government is interested in 
peeing that this trade shall continue, and as it firmly believes the ports of the is- 
lands will be freely opened to Japan if the United States governs the islands, it 
would rather see America gain control than any other nation." 

"I was consulted last week in regard to taking an offer of 60,000 tons of steel 
plates for delivery in Western Australia. My feeling was that we should wait re- 
sults. Let us see whether we do not get into trouble in regard to the 'open door' 
or the 'closed door in the Philip})ines. If we do, of course there is no delivery in 
Western Australia possible to the extent of 60,000 tons of steel to be made by Amer- 
ican labor. Mr. Gage's commercial expansion is hindered. This steel may not be 
made in the United States. So much for imperialism and its foreign complica- 
tions. 

"Suppose, however. President McKinley, in order lo hold the Philippines at ;ill, 
has to grant the 'open door,' where will Secretary Gage and his commercial expan- 
sion stand then? What will labor in the United States say to the recreant Presi- 
dent? What compensation is it to have? 

"Wliat justification can be pleaded for paying twenty or forty millions for the 
Philippines, and for sacrificing the blood of our soldiers and the lives of our civil 
servants involved in this acquisition, if no advantage accrues? What answer will 
he make to the people upon whom he imposes additional taxation? 

"I think I know what the laboring masses of the United States will say to 
him and to any government that throws upon the country such sacrifices of life and 
such burdens, only to open its costly acquisitions to the nations of the world. 

"If it be fair competition with otiier nations that wo require for commercial 
oxjiansion. we are certain of that already, because Britain will never permit the open 
{loor in the far East to be closed. 

"President Gompers, of the American Federation of Labor, is on the right 
track. lie denounces the policy of bringing the Republic into the zone of Euro- 
peaq strife in the far East. He will win, and it only needs a few large employers 




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VIEWS ALONG THE SUEZ CANAL. 




a 

3 



ANDREW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 521 

of labor to speak to theii- people to carry the entire laboring peoi)le of the Union 
against the President's supposed treachery to the cause of American labor. 

"Let the President take either horn of the dilemma and his policy of what he 
himself has called 'criminal aggression' fails. Let him open the door to the world 
and he antagonizes American labor. Let him consider the Philippines part of the 
United States, and therefore entitled under the Constitution to free trade with, 
as part of, the United States, and its door closed except througli the high tariff to 
all other nations, and he antagonizes the whole of Europe and has war upon his 
hands to a certainty — this time no weak Spain to deal with, but the overwhelming 
naval power of Europe. 

"Be of good cheer! The American people have always decided rightly in great 
crises. The imperialistic policy has not been properly discvissed, because the posi- 
tion of the President and the Government is not yet known, but the President has 
to come forward and decide the question I have indicated. 

"This will be the death lilow of imperialism either way he decides. 

"The Republic will escape the threatened danger and hold fast to the policy of 
'the Fathers,' which has made it the most prosperous nation the world ever saw 
and brought the industrial supremacy of the world within its grasp under the aegis 
of peace and security — the one industrial nation free from the unceasing danger of 
wars and rumors of wars which keep every shi]iyard, every armor plant, every gun 
factory in the world busy night and day, Saturdays and Sundays, preparing engines 
for the coming struggle between the nations of Europe." 

Mr. Carnegie had predicted that the President would be forced to meet the 
question of "the ojDcn door"' or "the closed door,'" and he commented: 

"From the President's record as the champion of American products of the soil 
and the mine and of American labor, I supposed that he would not yield to the 
dictation of our foreign rivals without hesitation. One was justified in thinking 
that an American President would not sacrifice American interests without hesi- 
tating, but it seems the President never hesitated a moment. 

"From one point of view he cannot be blamed. There was no use in his at- 
tempting to oppose the giving of the 'open door' to the foreigner, because refusal 
meant that he had to meet the combined fleets of Japan, Russia, Germany, France, 
and last, but not least. Great Britain, and this the wildest expansionist, unless 
wholly bereft of reason, would not for a moment consider. He had to concede to 
other nations the markets of his new ill-starred possession. To such national hu- 
miliations imperialism inevitably leads. 

"In this morning's papers we are correctly told by the Secretary of the State 



522 ANDREW CAliNEGlE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

that the 'open door' does not mean free trade, that the Philippines will hare their 
tariff, and that all products entering the ports will be required to pay the same du- 
ties, whether these be products of American soil or labor, or of the low-priced labor 
of Europe, India, Australia, or the Argentine; but the Secretary of State is also 
reported to have said that this places all nations upon an equality. Here he has made 
a i)ardonable mistake, since he has rfo experience of commerce. 

'"The manufacturer of Germany, France or Britain, the farmer of Australia and 
of the Baltic provinces of Eussia and of the Argentine, reach the Philippines at 
about one-half the freight cost that the American farmer has to pay upon his 
products or the American manufacturer upon manufactured articles. The distance 
to Manila from the Atlantic seaboard is, sa)', 14,000 miles (via Cape); from Europe 
only, say, 9,000; 12,000 from New York (via Europe, which is the shortest way); 
from Australasia only about one-half the distance of that from San Francisco, say 
3,500 miles, against 7,000; from India only 4,000, from Argentina not much further 
than from San Francisco. 

"Therefore, when President ilcKinley agreed that the products of Europe and 
the agricultural products of Australia and Argentina and India should reach the 
Philippines and pay only the same tariff as products of the soil and the mine of his 
own country, he closed the door effectually upon American commercial expansion 
in the Philippines. 

"American products stood upon an equality with those of foreign nations un- 
der Spanish authority, except that Spain was favored against all, and here are the 
import figures for the last year of Philippine trade (189G) for which figures are 
available: 

"From Great Britain and British Colonies, 15 per cent. . . .£1,420,800 

From Spain, 13 per cent 284,310 

From all other nations, 22 per cent 480,890 

Total imports £2,180,000 

or, say, $10,500,000. The United States sent only $146,000 worth, a sum too small 
for the Statesman's Year Book to specify separately. 

"Under the President's concession of the 'open door' such will be about the 
United States' proportion in future. Conditions are not changed, except as to 
Spain's paltry 13 per cent. 

"The trade of the Philippines cannot be American, but let no one blame the 
President, because if his imperialism was not to suffer shipwreck he had to throw 
away the markets of his new possessions. 



ANDEEW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 523 

"It is interesting to consider whether the President or Secretary of State or any 
member of his Cabinet knew that lauding American products either of the farm or 
of the mine in Manila upon equal terms with the agricultural products of Australia, 
India, Argentina, or of the manufactures of Europe, simply meant that American 
grain, flour, provisions, American cotton and woolen goods, American iron and 
steel, were at so serious a disadvantage, owing to the greater distance, that they were 
practically excluded from the new possessions tor which the xlmerican people are 
to pay. 

"My answer is that I do not believe that one of them ever thought of this fatal 
fact of distance. The men in Washington to-day are so immersed in problems which 
have nothing whatever to do with the prosperity of their own country that they have 
no time to consider subjects bearing upon it. They have eaten of the insane root 
of territorial expansion in distant continents; they are dreaming dreams, chasing 
'phantoms, and in one stroke of the pen the President of the United States has 
innocently given over the trade of the Philippines to foreign nations. I do not be- 
lieve that he ever thought of distance. 

"America stands in regard to the trade of the Philippines exactly as she stood 
when they were under the dominion of Spain, except that the 13 per cent of Spain 
was favored. She was then on an equality with other foreign nations, but what has 
the Eepublic now to shoulder by this hasty act of the President which she had not 
before? 

"First— She pays $20,000,000 for the privilege of getting what she had better 
have paid a thousand millions to be without. 

"Second — The President is to ask Congress for an addition to the army one and , 
one-half times bigger than the entire army that was necessary before he left the 
path of the fathers and plunged the ship of state into this sea of troubles. 

"Third — The President is to ask Congress for a tremendous addition to our 
navy; which will cost more than $20,000,000 every year. The increased army will 
cost probably as much. 

"The President will get hfs ships of war, but he will not get his regular soldiers. 
The work which he wishes them to do is not that which the regular soldier of the 
Tnited States has hitherto agreed to do. The regular soldier will now have to leave 
his country to suppress the aspirations of people for independence. 

"Perhaps the President of the United States will order the American soldier 
to shoot down men whose only crime is that they fight for the independence of 
their country, which the American has been brought up to believe a prize worthy 
of all sacrifice. Eecruits cannot be had for the regular army to-day. The pay of 



524 ANDREW CARXEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

the arniy must be raised. It is safe to say that the additional burdens which the 
President must finally jilace u^jon the American people will not amount to less than 
$100,000,000 per annum, all of this required because the country will have to main- 
tain a great army and a navy equal to tliose of European powers, in order to defend 
worthless foreign possessions from which no benefit can now be reaped, American 
products having been effectually excluded. 

"Now as to how this hundred millions is to be raised. Fortunately we are not 
left in doubt. The President's spokesman and manager. Senator Ilanna, has de- 
clared that the tea and coffee of the workingman, now free, are to be taxed. There 
is not a dinner pail that is not to be laid under contribution; labor is to bear the 
burden. There is scarcely a farmer, nor a farm-hand emjjloyed by the farmer, nor 
a wage-earner of any kind, who does not use tea or coffee, these necessaries of life, 
and there is not one upon whose hard-won earnings the President of the I'nited 
States, through Senator Hanna, does not propose to le\7 a tax to siii)port his wild 
un-American schemes. 

"The question now is, what is to be the response of the farmers and the farm 
laborers and the workingmen, the men of the dinner pails, to this extraordinary pro- 
gramme? If the President or any of his supporters can show that he is going to 
promote their interests in any way by his bargain for the Philippines, let him 
speak. 

"I have shown that as far as the Philippines are concerned he has placed the 
United States at 'a fatal disadvantage compared with our foreign rivals. Can any 
one gainsay this? Is it not so? Here is the broad point for the President or any 
of his supporters to grapi)le with: 

"Can American jjroducts of the farm or of the mine reach the Philippines at 
anything approaching the cost of transportation of the agricultural products of 
Australia, Argentina or Russia, or the manufactures of Great Britain, (iermany or 
France, having thousands of miles further to go? 

"If yes, then the American is not disadvantaged, but he has even then no ad- 
vantage for all his taxes. He had the open door bef6re, except in competition with 
Spain. 

"If not, then the President has handicapped the agricultural and manufac- 
turing interests of his country, and given to the foreigner the trade of the Philip- 
pines. 

"Thus the claims of the imperialists that foreign acquisitions extend our com- 
merce with the Philippines is groundless. Let us hear no more of it. They must 
confine themselves to 'Humanity,' with a big H, for business reasons there are none. 



VNUKEW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 525 

''The President is coiifroiitid with another grave problem in liis new and 
thorny path. One of the abk'st men ol" the United States is Secretary Wilson, of 
tlie Department of Agrieiilture, a member of his C'aliinet. No one who has followed 
his ivritings and kept advised of his successes as I have can fail to be deeply inter- 
ested in his work and in his man. He has told the nation that it can grow all the 
sugar it requires; he encourages us to believe that we shall be able to grow all the 
flax for our linen. He is deeply interested in the growth of tobacco within our own 
domain. 

"Now, to admit the sugar of Hawaii, as the President has decided we must 
continue to do (Hawaii having become United States territory), and to go forward 
with the same policy and admit sugar and tobacco from Porto Rico, which is United 
States territory, like Hawaii, and to annex Cuba and admit its sugar and tobacco, 
and to admit the hemp of Manila, would destroy the patriotic labors of Secretary 
Wilson. 

'"I have no warrant for saying so, but I believe he would resign his office in the 
Caltinet the moment the President of the United States attempted to admit one 
pound of sugar or tobacco free from Porto Rico or hemp from the Philippines. The 
opposition of Secretary Wilson to this fatal course would be sufficient; he would 
never have to resign from the Cabinet on that issue, simply because the farming 
States, which make the President, would revolt. They will not be trifled with on 
this i>oiut, neither would the people of the United States, as a whole, approve of 
the beet-sugar industry being stricken down at this moment. 

"We are soon to see the President of the United States proclaim, as he can — 
as long as he is military dictator — that not a pound of hemp from Manila, not a 
pound of sugar or tobacco from Porto Rico, will ever enter the United States with- 
out paying the same duties as sugar or tobacco or hemp from foreign countries. He 
is going to attempt to keep the American tariffs against the products of Cuba, Porto 
Rico and the Philippines, notwithstanding his desire for their 'civilization,' for their 
'benefit," notwithstanding 'Humanity." 

"What a spectacle for Americans! But the interests of the poor Filipinos, of 
the poor Porto Ricans, are of little moment when the votes of the farmers of the 
United States are in jeopardy. Such are the fruits of the new policy. 

"We are getting into a ma-,ie of knotty prolilems. Products of Hawaii and of 
all other jiortions of the United States are exchanged free of duties under the con- 
stitutional provision which establi.shes free trade with our dominions, but the 
products of Porto Rico, which the President has recognized as American territory 
and held their trade for American ships as coast trade, are to be denied what 



52G 



ANDKKW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 



Hawaii has — as far as its exports to the United States are concerned. But Amer- 
ican products to Porto Rico are to be under the Constitution and free. The Phil- 
ippines, on the other hand, are to have neither their exports nor imports to or from 
the United States under the Constitution. 

"This is a staggering state of affairs, but then let us remember the President 
as War Lord is quite within his constitutional rights to 'make ducks and drakes' 
with the Constitution in war time. No one can question his authority: there is 
no usurpation of power, but one cannot but marvel at the 'admired disorder' of 
his regulations. Ah, ilr. President, little did you know what leaving the teaching 
of the fathers meant when you rashly abandoned it and entered upon your new 
and thorny path. 

"What would you not give to get back again to the true American ideas? 
It is not yet too late if you only knew your jiower over the masses of the people, 
but you have to speak out in language to be 'understood of the common people' 
in yoxir next message to Congress, or the inijierialistic craze may sweep you to your 
political ruin. 

'■J must pause as I write to pay tribute to the many virtues of the President. 
Some mutual friends have suggested that I went too far when I said that I began 
to doubt whether he had convictions upon any subject. Let me say to these 
that I was not speaking of the private character of Mr. McKinley. I had his official 
acts as President in view, and who will pretend that as President he has s^ood to 
his official convictions. 

"These very friends urge that he was opposed to the war with Spain, for 
instance, until a noisy gang dragged him into it. This is what all his supporters 
are saying, and it is no doubt true and creditable to him as a good, gentle man, 
but when it becomes our duty to call a public officer to account for his acts and 
view him as history will place him — instead of this being a public virtue it was 
a national crime. 

"Assuming, as his friends claim, that be was not satisfied tliat war was I'Cijuired, 
his duty as President was to exhaust the pitwers which were vested in him by 
the Constitution and which he could not rightfully evade. He should have stood 
out like a man and exercised his power of veto as other Presidents have done, as 
General Grant did in a memorable case. Then, if Congress had passed the act 
over his veto he would have been clear in his great office — his soul uncharged 
with the blood spent and the thousands of lives sacrificed in unhealthy camps. 

"It was this official act and another which could be named which T had in 



ANDEEW CAENEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 537 

view when I spoke of 'convictions,' not the private acts of the individual Mr. 
McKinley, which do not concern us. 

"Eepresentatives and Senators, on the other hand, who thouglit in their 
consciences that war was necessary, are not responsible for results. These acted 
as officials should act always — in obedience to what is right as they see it. 

"But if any words of mine bear the interpretation that I was speaking of 
anything except the acts of the President in his official capacity, I express unfeigned 
regret and publicly aiJologize for them. 

'T never approached a President of the Vnited States without being awed, 
nor did I do so this week, when I was honored by being accorded an interview with 
President McKinley. 

'I speak against his jJolicy as President in the strongest terms, and denounce 
it, but well do I know the man as one of the best intentioned and purest living 
men — a model of every virtue — 

" 'The kindest man; 

The best conditioned and unwearied spirit 
In doing courtesies.' 

"I have known Mr. McKinley most of my political life. I have always been 
his friend, but never so much his friend as I am to-day, when I tell him the 
truth as I see it. Would that he had more such friends, for many of those about 
him onlv whisper their dissent from his jiolicy behind his back. Every man of 
position who feels his country endangered should write to the President. 

"This much the President knows: he has one friend who speaks boldly to 
him face to face, one who has no favor to ask and fears nothing save his own 
self-reproach. 

"When called upon to consider the public safety let it never be forgotten, 
however, that some of the direst evils that ever fell upon nations have come from 
the best of men in all the domestic virtues, but men irresolute of purpose. Had 
President Buchanan been a President Jackson we should have been saved the Civil 
War. The President is too modest, and fails, as I think, to rate either his high office 
or himself at true value. 

"So much for the President as a man and as a public official, the one sacred 
from criticism, the other not, for public officials' acts or policies are the property 
of the people. We fail in our duty if we do not arraign him when we believe 
his acts or his policy ^re against our country's good. I do not intend to fail in the 
performance of this duty. 

"I did not fail in this duty to President Grant, with whose friendship I was 



5--2S ANDREW CARXEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPAXSIOX. ' 

honored, or to the country, wlien he iiroposed ihe annexation of San Domingo, 
which was not 'criminal aggression' upon his part, for its people desired annexation. 

"I have done with President McKinlcv iust as I did with President Grant — 
opposed and denounced his policy. General Grant remained my friend notwitli- 
standing to the end, and I his friend. 

"President McKinley may also, or may not, but I shall remain his well-wisher 
and friend as a man, and a standi one, although I see in his policy as President 
nothing but disaster for our country, and have told him so, and intend to keep 
on telling him so until the issue is settled beyond the reach of discussion. 

"To resume the discussion, it is not for the President of the United States 
to decide, when he becomes once again a constitutional ruler, whether he can or 
cannot deprive any citizen of the United States of the right which the Con- 
stitution gives him to send his products to any territory over which the flag holds 
sway, free of all tariffs within the broad domain of the Kepublic. This is a con- 
stitutional right which even Congress cannot impair. 

"This question is to be decided by the highest and most august tribunal of the 
world, the Supreme Court of the United States, composed of nine able, pure men, 
who hold office for life, independent of President, of Congress or of a popular vote, 
a court which has Just struck down the greatest combination of capital that the 
world ever saw, a combination of the railway interests of this country — a court 
which will not hesitate to apply the fundamental principles which underlie our 
Government, and uphold the constitutional rights of the citizen from the attack 
of either President or Congress. Therein lies the safety of the Eepublic. 

"Whether the dictum of the President of the United States is to debar me 
from sending steel made by the highest-priced labor in the world to all American 
territory and prevent me from bringing back from the Philippines in the same 
ship the hemp of Manila, free of all tariffs, as I can do to Hawaii, is to be 
decided by the Supreme Court, and only by it. 

"If it is so decreed I shall liow without a murmur, as every loyal citizen of 
the United States should bow to that tribunal, but we bow not to the President 
except when he is war lord, commander-in-chief, whose request to me to sail for 
the Philippines to-morrow, or to any place in the world, to perform services to 
the Eepublic, I consider myself bound to obey, as a soldier would obey his superior, 
but whose commands in the days of peace I will question and take to a higher court 
if I think he attempts to rob me of a constitutional right. This is the birthright 
of every American citizen. 

"I have laid a matter for serious consideration before the farmers and their 



ANDREW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 529 

workingmen, and l)efore the wage-earners of the conntry. Their products cannot 
reach the Philippines under tlie President's action. Two thousand to five thousand 
additional miles of transportation rule them out in competition with the agri- 
cultural products of the Argentine Republic, of India, of Russia, and with the 
manufacturers of Britain, France and Germany. 

"The open door to the foreigner means the 'closed d<ior" to the United States. 

"Strange day's work this for an American President, who against the commerce 
destroyers of his country should 

" 'Have barred the door, not borne the knife himself.' 

"ilr. Murat Halstead, speaking at Homestead, Pa., said the Philippines will 
be to the United States what India is to England.' This is what I believe they 
will be, but does Mr. Halstead know what India is to England? 

"Perhaps he has never been to India — I have. I have met the Indians who 
s]ieak English — who have spoken to me freely, because I was an American. What 
does education make of Indians? Incipient rebelsl They have taken to heart 
Washington and our straggle for independence; they speak most of Cromwell, and 
of Bolivar, Wallace and Tell. 

"England in India stands to-day upon a volcano. She has to keep 00,000 
British troops there to hold the people in subjection. She does not trust one 
gun in the hands of native troops. They can have muskets, but the artillery is 
all held by the British regiments. England has been in India for nearly 200 
years — this is the condition she is still in to-day. Of all the perils of England, 
that of India is the greatest. 

"There is scarcely a statesman of Britain who does not wish privately, 'Would 
that we were safely out cf India!' ilore than one of them has said so to me. 
What does India do for England? xVsk the desolate homes that I have known 
in Britain. The late war against the Afridis plunged many thousands of homes 
of England in mourning. The greatest weakness that England possesses to-day is 
India. Were it not for India she would not fear Russia. 

"India is the curse of Britain and the Philippines will be the curse of the 
United States. If you teach .suppressed people at all you make them rebels. 
Education is fatal to the government of a superior race. The slaveholders under- 
stood this — in order to maintain slavery the slave could not be taught to read. The 
Declaration of Independence will make every ambitious Filipino a dissatisfied 
subject. 

"I thank IMr. Halstead for teaching me that phrase. I could not ask for 



530 



ANJDIJEW CARNEGIE OPPOSED TO ILXPAXSIOX. 



anything better. Tlie Philippines are to be to the United States what India is 
to Britain. Agreed. 

"I hope the President of the United States has heard what Mr. IlalstoaJ has 
said, and that it will induce him to look into the qtiestion of India and England. 
Upon this text I stake the whole issue — only let the Americans learn what India 
is to Britain and the President's policy is doomed. Thanks again, Friend Hal- 
stead. 




oCa^JL^^J 



A^vUX-^vji^Cii. 



CHAPTEE III. 

SENATOR CUSHMAN K. DAVIS FOR EXPANSION. 

The Dislinguished Chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and 
Member of the Peace Commission Declares His Position — The American 
Peoj)le Have Made an Immeasurable Advance Within a Year — The Presi- 
dent's Good Work — The Story of the Llaking of the Treaty of Peace — • 
No Warning that Americans Claimed Too Much — Filipinos Not Ready for 
Sovereignty Over Civilized People — Historical Antecedents of Expansion — 
The Question What We Shall Do with the Philippine Archipelago Not Yet 
Upon Us — It Will Be Fair and Honorable. 

Senator Cushman K. Davis upon the question of American policy towards 
the Philippines, speaking with the weight of authority of the chairman of the 
Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, and that of Peace Commissioner in 
preparation at Paris of the treaty with Spain, said: 

"The American people and humanity within tlie last twelve months have 
advanced an immeasurable distance, never to recede. Nations, like individuals, 
do not shape their own destinies. The personal experience of every individual 
man teaches him that events in the earlier part of his life which seemed incon- 
siderable to him have deflected the entire intended course of his destiny, as marked 
by him, and sometimes moved him to higher altitudes of performance than he 
had ever dreamed possible. And it is so of nations. Although we may plan wisely 
by constitutional requirements, by statutory enactments, by party policy, there 
come — wliether by Providence or the evolutionary processes — interventions in the 
affairs of nations, by that divinity that shapes the ends thereof, hew them how we 
will. 

"As I said, we have passed an eventful twelve months, and you will pardon me 
if I say here — not in the spirit of partisanship, but in just tribute to a conspicu- 
ous public character who has largely guided these momentous events — that I 
regard President McKinley, from the complete equilibrium of his character, from 
his attentive observation of the dictates of that majestic public opinion by which 
the results of all American issues are finally determined, by his firmness when a 
course of action has been resolved upon, by bis observance of the restrictions of 
the Constitution and the laws, as a character altogether unique among American 
Presidents. I do not believe that in all the long and illustrious rule of the men 
who have filled that exalted chair there has been any man who has gone through 

531 



532 SENATOR CUSILMAX K. DAVIS FOR EXPAXSION". 

processes and situations of more difficulty, testing alike the Judgment and the 
conscience, with more success and greater acceptability to the people of the United 
States than President McKinley. 

"The results of the war were sudden and spectacular. Xo war was ever so 
shortly ended; no war was ever marked with such total annihilation of one of the 
opposing forces. And, finally, the time came when Spain was obliged to sue for 
peace, and the result was that the President of the United States empowered and 
appointed five citizens to proceed to Paris to endeavor to negotiate a final treaty 
with that monarchy. All of the members of that commission, excepting one, were 
men of no diplomatic experience whatever. They had nothing to guide them but 
what they esteemed to be a plain and clear conception of the interests of this 
country, and of the duties of this victorious Xation toward the general cause of 
humanity. The one exception — and I deem it entirely proper to mention it here — 
the one exception of the man who possessed diplomatic experience was Mr. \Miite- 
law Reid, who had had great and considerable experience in that way, and whose 
counsels in that respect and whose ability in all other respects were of the greatest 
assistance to us. 

"The members of the Spanish Commission were men of great experience, men 
who had occupied high diplomatic and judicial and military positions in their own 
country, and, in short, the best ability of Spain had been sent to confront the 
American Commissioners. 

"Of course, the terms of the treaty up to a certain point were plainly laid down 
by the protocol, which had been entered into between Spain and the United States 
in August last. They were the relinquishment of the sovereignty of Cuba; the 
cession of Porto Rico from the other West India islands, and the occupation of the 
city, bay, and harbor of Manila iintil the control and disposition and government 
of the Philippine Islands should have been disposed of by a treaty of peace. 

"The first point of conllict that we encountered was the insistence of the 
Spanish commissioners that with the relinquishment of the sovereignty of Cuba 
to be made to the United Stages, which amounted to a cession, should go an assump- 
tion by the United States, and from her to Cuba, whenever she should be estab- 
lished as a government, of the entire so-called colonial debt of Cuba. 

"That debt amounted to $700,000,000. Of course we rejected the proposition 
and we w-ould have rejected it if that debt had been TOO cents. I had the honor 
myself of making an answer to a very able argument of Seiior Montero Rios that, 
as a matter of international law of course there should be an apportionment of 
the debt, a prorating of the matter by some scale, which was easy to adopt. He 



SENATOR CUSHMAX K. DAVIS FOR EXPANSION. 533 

cited many instances where such an adjustment of the colonial debt had been made, 
and from that he endeavored to exhaust the matters of special convention into a 
matter of general international la^v. To that we made one answer, that it was not 
a principle in international law, that the true principle w^as that whenever the in- 
tegrity of the original empire remained as in the case of Spain, where any nation 
or people had risen in the assertion of their liberties and had achieved them either 
independently or by the aid of another power, tluit the mother country took entire 
burden of the debt, especially \\hen a large part of it was created in an effort to 
subjugate and subdue that colony which had attempted to gain its independence. 

"We adopted articles for the relinquishment of the sovereignty of Spain and 
of the cession of Porto Rico, and then proceeded to the consideration of other minor 
matters. Finally we suljmitted our proposition for the cession pure and simple of 
the Philippine archipelago, and then after a solid five weeks the Spanish commis- 
sioners wheeled around and reoccupied the position as to the assumption of the 
colonial debt, which we had supposed they had abandoned, and said to us in a not 
entirely diplomatic manner, that it might as well be understood, and they did not 
w-ant to repeat it again, that any proposition for peace which did not involve the 
assumption of the proper proportion of the colonial debt would thwart the negotia- 
tions. 

"Thereupon, after some consultation, the American commissioners, tired of 
this wheeling and whirling from one point to another, laid down to the Spanish 
commissioners an ultimatum for the relinquishment of Cuba without the debt, for 
the cession of Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands and gave them a period of 
eight days to answer with a prospect of the suspension of negotiations, if a favor- 
able answer was not forthcoming at the end of that time. At the end of eight days 
~ the Spanish commissioners acquiesced. 

"The proceedings after that were matter of incident and mere form, and the 
result was that on December 10, 1898, a treaty was concluded and signed at Paris, 
about 7 o'clock in the evening, which, although perhaps it does not become me to 
say, j'et I will say it, was the most complete diplomatic triumph ever received in 
the annals of international negotiation. 

"For all the time that we had been in Paris no word whatever of admonition 
came from sea or shore that the American negotiators were claiming too much for 
their country, that one single thing that they had asked was in excess of the just 
requirements of the situation, and I will say, for one, that I was greatly surprised to 
find after we returned here that there was a class of people in this country — phe- 



534 SENATOR CUSHMAX K. 1)A\1S FUK KXrAXSlOX. 

nomena in the museum of humanity — who were emaciated vith surplus, who grew 
lean upon enough and grew iat upon a deficit. 

"It was at first thought that it would be sufficient to take thu island of Luzon, 
Init the best military and naval authorities. Admiral Dewey, General Merritt, Com- 
mander Bradbury, laid the situation before us from a military, naval and strategic 
point of view, which made it perfectly obvious that we must either take the entire 
archipelago or abandon it entirely; that the relations of those islands to each other 
were such that the acquisition of one, with a hostile jiower or a foreign power of 
whatever character holding the others, would only reproduce the conditions of Cuba 
as against the I'nited States and create a perpetual sore in the waters of the East. 
We were bound, in view of the astounding development which the Chinese sover- 
eignty has been subject to, to have a sufficient naval station in those waters. Who 
in this audience would have expected that we would have left the Philippines or 
any portion of those islands to the ineffable and indescribable atrocities of Spain? 
^Mien Dewey set the stars of that flag amongst the antipodal glories of the East, 
he imposed upon the American people a responsibility which we cannot avoid, and 
so, considering conditions to wjiich 1 will advert more fully in a few moments, it 
was decided that we should demand, and we did demand and receive, the cession of 
the entire archipelago of the Philippines. 

"It is not a question of what we shall do in the future. We are already com- 
mitted to the situation. We cannot put it aside or avoid it if we would. We cannot 
escape the responsibility which events, evolution, or Providence has imposed upon 
us. Will any American citizen, under present conditions, advocate that Dewey 
shall sail away from the harbor of Manila? That our troops shall vacate that is- 
land? That we, with an armed force of insurrection arrayed against the boys in 
blue and the American flag, who went there as their friends, shall in the face of 
the civilized world, like cowards in the night, evacuate those waters, and remit the 
Philippines to internal anarchy or foreign dismemberment? What would be the 
result? The Filipinos are not in a j)resent condition to govern themselves and es- 
tablish that independent republic of which fond theorists dream. I think no man 
in tliis audience who has read the current journals will for a moment question that 
they are not. We cannot endure, in view of onr past and coming interests in the 
Orient, that the Philippines shall be dismembered by foreign powers, as they will 
be the minute the Tnited States removes itself from that situation, and, above all 
things, my fellow citizens, although they appear perhaps dimly before us now, yet 
I believe there is a profound conviction in the minds of the American people that 
part of all this force which has pushed us there and established us there is an im- 



SENATOR CUSHMAX K. DAVIS FOR EXPANSION. 53* 

potus wliicli tells for civilization, for a better Christianity, and that the United 
States f.s the great evangelist of the world is bound to play a leading part in those 
waters and in those islands. 

"I would treat the Filipinos in this way, considering their present condition 
and their inconsiderate actions, stimulated, I believe, by inconsiderate advice from 
the United States, I would treat tliem with the hand of paternal affection, whenever 
possible, and by the hand of paternal chastisement whenever necessary. And when 
the time should come by the handling and development of the people, little by little^ 
they could be admitted to local autonomy, which I would grant to the fullest ex- 
tent wherever possible. I would adopt toward them the same course that Great 
Eritain has adopted toward her civilized colonies, and I would rejoice that in the 
process of time an island republic could be established there in the Philippines 
against the island empire of Japan. But, imtil that time shall come, the interest, 
the honor, the security of the American people demand that we shall hold the Phil- 
ippine Islands, not only under our protection but under our rule. 

"To me the acquisition of the Philippine archipelago is not a mere gratification 
of lust or pride of conc^uest. Let us all endeavor to look a little beyond day after 
to-morrow as to these things. Let ns mark certain great tendencies proceeding 
with all the force and regularity, and sometimes Ayith the slowness of a great geo- 
logical process, and see what is meant by that which is transinring on the surface 
of human affairs within the last fifty years, and, fellow citizens, the tendency — shall 
I call it of humanity, or shall I call it by the forces which move the human race 
toward the Cliinese Orient — the Pacific East. Everything has been sidjdivisioned. 
France has acquired Madagascar. The great centers of activity are upon the east 
coast of Asia. Russia is constructing across Siberia that great trans-continental 
railroad which was foretold 200 years ago. By the treaty of 1896 Russia has ob- 
tained practical control of Chinese Manchuria, an area as large as Texas, and con- 
taining twenty million people. She has obtained Port Arthur, always open, for a. 
terminus of a railroad instead of Vladivostock, frozen four months in the year, 
France has seized Siam, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin China. Germany has made- 
a compensatory seizure. I am not in favor of the dismemberment of that great 
empire, an empire which was old when Alexander watered his steed in the River 
Incus, an empire which has within itself the greatest experiences of the human 
race. I am in favor of retaining the integrity of that empire, and let it be acces- 
silile to the civilized world of commerce. Accordingly, I say and think that it would 
safeguard the business of the world in those waters for fifty years, if Great Britain 



53o SENATOR CUSHMAX K. DAVIS FOR EXPANSION. 

and Japan and the I'nitcd States should dechire with their imited power that there 
should be no dismemberment of that immemorial empire. 

"There are other reasons. The American peace commissioners were taught 
all too painfully while we were in Paris that we had not a friend on the continent 
of Europe — not a friend. That treaty was made under the most adverse conditions 
of public sentiment so far as continental Europe was concerned. Our diplomatic 
relations with Germany and France, and all of the other nations, while now en- 
tirely satisfactory — and exaggerated in the public press, especially in regard to our 
relations with Germany — yet considering their aggressions upon the coast of China, 
their intentions regarding the dismemberment of the vast empire, the enormous 
military force, and those millions of fatalists — of men who fight without regard 
to death, under the dnminion of a foreign power, within thirty years could lie made 
immensely dangerous to the United States. 

"I don't want to see my country become the China of the West. In these days, 
when space has been annihilated by steam, I don't view with complacency and with- 
out apprehension the destiny of the great em])ire or empires of dismembered China, 
ready to descend upon the Western coast of the United States. It was to obviate 
that that I advocated so earnestly the acquisition of Hawaii. It is to forestall that 
that I am willing and anxious to see some of our lands well fortified and made a 
base of defense and naval operations. Perhaps these things may be speculative, but 
they are well enough to think on. 

"But above all things, for present considerations I am immensely interested 
that this country shall have its share of the trade of that great empire. We ex- 
ported over $1,200,000,000 last year. Our comi)etitors for the markets of the world 
are eager, anxious, unscrujiulous sometimes. The emjure of China, with its iOO,- 
000,000 of peojjle, one-third of the human race, if opened to the instrumentalities 
of modern civilization, is an event, in my opinion, quite, if not more, pretentious 
and important than the discovery of America by Columbus, and it is my desire and 
hope and expectation, and it is that to which my humble labors have been and will 
be directed to secure for this Government and its pco])le, for its manufacturers of 
Chicago, Pittsburg, Philadelphia, St. Paul and ilinneapolis their share in that 
trade. 

"California, Washington and Oregon have not 2,000,000 of people to-day. I 
want to see the commercial progress of that country go on until there are 20,000,000 
people there, the anchor of our security as a result of commerce in those waters, 
and I do honestly and sincerely believe from all I have studied and read and thought 
on that subject that the retention of the Philippine Islands, their adjustment to 







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SENATOR CUSHMAN K. DANLS FOR EXPANSION. 539 

our relations, is a necessary and indispensable step in the advancement of the great 
ideas to which I have so imperfectly alluded. 

"And now, in the matter of our foreign relations, and as to what affects our 
exterior interests, we are all one — one in interest. We may not be one in opinion, 
but we certainly ought to be one in a sincere and honest conclusion. Surely in the 
heart of no man there can enter in the various diversities of opinion which involve 
such a subject any desire, hope, or thought that does not conduce to the interest 
of his country. We all differ; we have different shades of opinion upon all ques- 
tions, contingent and future. The question of what we shall do with the Philippine 
archipelago is not yet upon us. We are actually now in the possession of all those 
islands. We own them, or shall own them when Spain ratifies the treaty of ces- 
sion, and the question is, shall we decide at once? Must we say now and at once 
that the territory for which we have paid $20,000,000, for which American blood 
has been shed, and may be being shed to-night or to-day, for it is regardless of party 
strife, stand with united front, confronting every opposition? And it is well that 
it is so, and so, my friends — partisan as I am — if anything that I shall say to-night 
shall bear the least tinge of partisan complexion, I beg you to believe that it is not 
on that account, but that because in the broad scope of x\merican citizenship and 
American faith I believe that what I shall say is coincident with all considerations 
of national dignity and honor." 



OKiSli^ 



CHAPTER IV. 
COL. W. J. BRYAN. 

Astonished that Any American Citizen AVoxikl TTphold the Doctrine of Gaining 
Land by Conquest — He Could Have Told ]iIcKinley to Take Care Not to 
Confide in Public Opinion Formed at the Rear of a Car — Imperialism 
Wanted to Exercise Sovereignty Over an Alien Race — Self-Government 
Was Gained in the School of Government — No Excuse for a Colonial Policy 
— Mr. Gage the Key-Hole of the Administration — The Colonial Policy 
Rested on Vicarious Enjoyment— A Call for the Ancient Law-Giver on 
Sinai — Against a Larger Army — Imperialists Confuse Their Beatitudes — 
Xot Profitable to Buy a Lawsuit — ilufHe the Liberty Bell — Give Me Liberty 
or Give Me Heath. 

Col. W. .7. Bryan, whose candidacy for the Presidency in 1896 was an episode 
in our political history of vast, various and memorable conspicuity, says: 

"It is astonishing that any man living in this age of the world, living in the 
United States, should uphold the docti'ine of securing land by conquest. 

"Jefferson was against it long years ago. Blaine was against it in 1890. And 
a year ago last December the President of the United States sent a message to Con- 
gress, and in that message he said: 

" "I speak not of forcible annexation, because that is not to be thought of; un- 
der our code of morality that would be criminal aggression.' That was only a year 
ago; I stand to-day where McKinley stood a year ago, and wliere he must go back 
if the American people support him. ily friends, there is a great moral question 
involved, declared so by your President; a code of morality is in question, and ac- 
cording to that code, forcible annexation is criminal aggression. 

"President McKinley said he learned the sentiment of the people on this ques- 
tion during his trip through the West last fall. You cannot find out the sentiment 
of the people on a great question by just going through the country and gathering 
it up. If he had asked me I could have told him how careful he ought to he about 
estimating the sentiment of the peojile from the rear of a car. If he will put his 
ear to the ground he will find that the people are declaring that the long established 
principles of our Government are still good, and that we do not have to borrow our 
foreign policies or our financial policies from alien countries." 

The Colonel remains true to his Chicago platform, saying it "was good when 
it was adopted: it grows better with age. It was strong in 1896; it is stronger 

540 



COL. AV. J. BEYAN. ' 5il 

now. The Democratic party could not ignore the issues raised by the war. It must 
speak out against militarism now or forever hold its peace. A large standing army 
is not only an expense to the people, but it is a menace to the nation, and the 
Democratic party will lie a unit in opposing it. 

"A word in regard to imperialism. Those who advocate the annexation of the 
Philippines call themselves expansionists, but they are really imperialists. Tiie 
word expansion would describe the acquisition of territory to be populated by homo- 
geneous people and to be carved into states like those now in existence. An empire 
suggests variety in race and diversity in government. The imperialists do not de- 
sire to clothe the Filipinos witli all the rights and privileges of American citizen- 
ship; they want to exercise sovereignty over an alien race, and they expect to rule 
the new subjects upon a theory entirely at variance with constitutional government. 
Victoria is Queen of Great Britain and Empress of India; shall we change the title 
of our Executive and call him the President of the United States and Emperor of 
the Philippines? 

"The Democratic party stood for the money of the Constitution in 1890; it 
stands for the government of the Constitution now. It opposed an English ^nan- 
cial policy in 1896; it opposes an English colonial policy now. Those who in 1896 
were in favor of turning the American people over to the greed of foreign financiers 
and domestic trusts may now be willing to turn the Filipinos over to the tender 
mercies of military governors and carpetbag officials. 

"Those who in 1896 thought the people of the United States too weak to attend 
to their own Inisiness may now think them strong enough to attend to the business 
of remote and alien races, biit those who in 1896 fought for independence for the 
American people will not now withhold independence from those who desire it else- 
where. 

"AYe are told that the Filipinos are not capable of self-government; that has 
a familiar ring. Only two years ago I heard the same argument made against a 
very respectable minority of the people of this country. The money-lenders, who 
coerced their employes, did it upon that theory; the employers who coerced their 
employes did it for the same reasoii. Self-government increases with participation 
in government. The Filipinos are not far enough advanced to share in the govern- 
ment of the people of the United States, but they are competent to govern them- 
selves. It is not fair to compare them with our own citizens, because the American 
people have been educating themselves in the science of government for nearly 
three centuries, and. while we have much to learn, we have already made great im- 
provement. The Filipinos will not establish a perfect government, but they will 



542 COL. W. J. BTJYAX. 

establish a government as nearly perfect as tlicy arc competent to enjoy, and tlie 
United States can protect them from molestation from without. 

"Give the Filipinos time and opportunity and, while they never will catch up 
with. us, unless we cease to imjirovc, yet they may some day stand where we stand 
now. 

"What excuse can be given for the adoptiim of a colonial policy? Secretary 
Gage disclosed the secret in his Savannah s|)cccli. 1 tliink wc miglit be justified in 
calling Jlr. Gage the keyhole of the administration, Ijccause we look through him 
to learn what is going on within tiic e-\ecutive council chamber. lie suggested tluit 
'jihihinthro|iy and 5 per cent' would go hand in hand in the new venture. These 
are tlie two arguments which are always used in favor of conquest. Philanthropy 
and 5 per cent. The one chloroforms the conscience of the conquerer and the other 
picks the pocket of the conquered. 

"Some say that philantlimpy demands that wc govern the Filipinos for their 
own good, while others assert that we must hold the islands because of the pecuniary 
profit to be derived from them. I deny the soundness of both arguments. Forcible 
annexation will not only be criminal aggression (to 1)orrow Jlr. McKinley's language 
of a year ago), but it will cost more than it is worth and thr whole people will pay 
the cost wliile a few will reap all the benefits. 

"Still weaker is the argument based ujion religious duty. The Christian reli- 
gion rests upon the doctrine of vicarious suifering and atonement; the colonial pol- 
icy rests upon the doctrine of vicarious enjoyment. 

"'^\'lu■n tlje desire to steal beciuiies uncontrollable in an individual he is de- 
clared to be a kleptonumiac and is sent to an asylum; when the desire to grab land 
becomes uncontrollable in a nation we are told that the 'currents of destiny are 
flowing through the hearts of men' and that the x^merican people are entering upon 
their nuinifest mission. 

"Shame upon a logic which locks up the petty offender and enthrones grand 
larceny! Have the people returned to the worship of the golden calf? Have they 
made unto themselves a new connnaiulment consistent with the spirit of conquest 
and the lust for emiiire!-' Is 'Thou shalt not steal upon a small scale" to be substi- 
tuted for the law of Moses? 

"Awake, oh, ancient lawgiver, awake! Break forth from thine unmarked sep- 
ulcher and speed thee back to the cloud-crowned summit of Mount Sinai, commune 
once more with the God of our fathers and proclaim again the words engraven upon 
the tables of stone — the law that was, the law that is to-day— the law tluit neither 
individual nor nation ean violate with iiuiuuiity." 



COL. W. J. BRYAN. 543 

He called attention to the President's recommendation of a larger army and in- 
sisted that the army should be divided into two branches — the army for domestic 
use in the United States, which he said did not need to be increased, and the army 
of occupation, which is temporarily necessary for use outside of the United States. 
He said that the army of occupation should be recruited at once, in order to relieve 
the volunteers, but that the term of service should be short, because the nation's 
policy is not yet settled. He suggested that the demand for an increase in the army 
might be considered as the first fruit of that victory to which the Republicans 
pointed with so much pride last November. 

Turning to the question of annexation, he insisted that the nation has not yet 
decided what to do with the Philippine Islands. He spoke in part as follows: 

"The sentiment of the people upon any great question must be measured dur- 
ing the days of deliberation and not during the hours of excitement. A good man 
will sometimes be engaged in a fight, but it is not reasonable to expect a judicial 
opinion from him until he has had time to wash the blood off his face. I have seen 
a herd of mild-eyed, gentle kine transformed into infuriated beasts by the sight 
and scent of blood, and I have seen the same animals quiet and peaceful again in a 
few hours. We have much of the animal in us still, in spite of our civilizing pro- 
cesses. It is not unnatural that our people should be more sanguinary immediately 
after a battle than they were before, but it is only a question of time when reflec- 
tion will restore the conditions which existed before this nation became engaged 
in the war with Spain. When men are excited they talk about what they can do; 
when they are calm they talk about what they ought to do. 

"If the President rightly interpreted the feelings of the people when they 
were intoxicated by a military triumph, we shall appeal from 'Philip drunk to Philip 
sober.' The forcible annexation of the Philippine Islands would violate a in-inciple 
of the great public law so deeply imbedded in the American mind that until a 
year ago no public man would have suggested it. It is difticult to overestimate the 
influence which such a change in our national policy would produce on the charac- 
ter of our people. Our opponents ask, is our nation not great enough to do what 
England, Germany and Holland are doing? They inquire, Can we not govern colo- 
nies as well as they? 

"'Wliether we can govern colonies as well as other countries can is not material; 
the real question is whether we can, in one hemisphere, develop the theory that gov- 
ernments derive their just power from the consent of the governed, and at the same 
time inaugurate, support and defend in the other hemisphere a government which 
derives its authority entirely from superior force. And, if these two ideas of govern. 



544 COL. W. J. BEYAN. 

ment cannot live together, which one shall we choose? To defend forcible annexa- 
tion on the ground that we are carrying out a religious duty is worse than absurd. 

"The Bible teaches us that it is more blessed to give than receive, while the 
colonial policy is based upon the doctrine that it is more blessed to take than to 
leave. I am afraid that the imperialists have confused their beatitudes. I once 
heard of a man who mixed up the parable of the good Samaritan with the parable 
of the sower, and in attempting to repeat the former said: 'A man went from 
Jerusalem to Jericho, and as he went he fell among thorns and the thorns sprang up 
and choked him.' 

"TVe entered the Spanish war as peacemakers. Imperialists have an indistinct 
recollection that a blessing has been promised to the peacemakers, and also to the 
meek, but their desire for more territory has perverted their memories so that as 
they recall the former it reads: 'Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall inherit 
the earth.' Annexation cannot be defended upon the ground that we shall find a 
pecuniary profit in the policy. The advantage which may come to a few individ- 
uals who hold the offices or who secure valuable franchises cannot properly be 
weighed against the money expended in governing the Philippines, because the 
money expended will be paid by those who pay the taxes. We are not yet in position 
to determine whether the people of the United States as a whole will bring back 
from the Philippines as much as they send there. 

"There is an old saying that it is not profitable to buy a lawsuit. Our nation 
may learn by experience that it is not wise to purchase the right to conquer a people. 
Spain, under compulsion, gives us a quit claim to the Philippines in return for- 
$20,000,000, but she does not agree to warrant and defend our title as against the 
Filipinos. To buy land is one thing; to buy people is another. Land is inanimate 
and makes no resistance to a transfer of title; the people are animate, and some- 
times desire a voice in their own affairs. But whether, measured by dollars and 
cents, the conquest of the Philippines would prove profitable or expensive, it will 
certainly prove embarrassing to those who still hold to the doctrine which under- 
lies a reptxblic. 

"ililitary rule is antagonistic to our theory of government. The arguments 
which are used to defend it in the Philippines may be used to- excuse it in the 
Tnitcd States. Under military rule much must be left to the discretion of the mil- 
itary governor, and this can only be justified upon the theory that the governor 
knows inore than the people whom he governs, is better acquainted with their needs 
than they are themselves, is entirely in sympathy with them and is thoroughly 
honest and unselfish in his desire to do them good. Such a combination of wisdom. 



COL. W. J. BRYAN. 545 

integrity and love is difficult to find, and the Eeimblican party will enter upon a 
hard task when it starts out to select suitable military governors for our remote 
possessions. Even if the party has absolute confidence in its great political man- 
ager, Senator Hanna, it must remember that the people of Ohio have compelled him 
to serve in the United States Senate and that inferior men must be entrusted with 
the distribution of justice and benevolence among the nation's dark-skinned subjects 
in the Pacific. 

"If we enter upon a colonial policy we must expect to hear the command 'Si- 
lence!' issuing with increasing emphasis from the imperialists. When the discussion 
of fundamental principles is attempted in the United States, if a member of Con- 
gress attempts to criticise any injustice perpetrated by a government official against 
a helpless people he will be warned to keep silent unless his criticism encourages 
resistance to American authority in the Orient. If an orator of the Fourth of July 
dare to speak of inalienable rights or refers with commendation to the manner in 
which our forefathers resisted taxation without representation, he will be warned 
to keep silent lest his utterances excite rebellion among distant subjects. If we 
adopt a colonial policy and pursue the corirse which excited the revolution of 1776 
we must muffle the tones of the old Liberty Bell and commune in whispers when we 
praise the patriotism of our forefathers. 

"We cannot afford to destroy the Declaration of Independence; we cannot af- 
ford to erase from our constitutions, state and national, the bill of rights; we have 
not time to examine the libraries of the nation and purge them of the essays, the 
speeches and the books that defend the doctrine that law is the crystallization of 
public opinion, rather than an emanation from physical power. 

"But even if we could destroy every vestige of the laws which are the outgrowth 
of the immortal law penned by Jeflierson; if we could obliterate every written word 
that has been inspired by the idea that this is 'a government of the people, by the 
people and for the people,' we could not tear from the heart of the human race the 
hope which the American Eepublic has planted there. The impassioned appeal, 
'Give me liberty or give me death,' still echoes around the world. In the future, 
as in the past, the desire to be free will be stronger than the desire to enjoy a mere 
physical existence. The conflict between right and might will continue here and 
everywhere until a day is reached when the love of money will no longer sear the 
national conscience and hypocrisy no longer hide the hideous features of avarice 
behind the mask of philanthropy." 



/rrj^f'^^^ 



CHAPTER V. 

HEXEY WATTERSOX FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

The Drift of the Country — The United American People— Always the Same, 
Though Divided — The Labels on the Bottles — An Anti-Expansion Party 
Would Be a Foredoomed Failure — Wm. ilcKinley and Joseph Wheeler — 
Tro])ical Vegetation in the White House — Eighty ilillion of Peo]de Cannot 
Be Passive — How Stands the Debate Between the Friends and Foes of 
Exjjansion? 

Mr. Watterson sends out, when he discusses a broad question, discursive flashes, 
and pours poetry around his arguments. He early and eloquently plead with his 
partisan friends to become Expansionists and drop traditions that had not led to 
triumph. Fie takes occasion to say "that of all men of the century that is so swiftly 
passing from us. Prince Bismarck seemed most to have had his way; yet it was 
Prince Bismarck- — who, whatever else he was, or was not, .'^howed himself always 
the frankest of mortals — big enough to disdain subterfuge — to scorn secrets — it was 
Bismarck who many times has told ns how small, how helpless the strongest man 
becomes upon the stormy ocean of great affairs; what a slave to chance; what a 
creature of circumstance. 

"Among the leaders of the nineteenth century — after Xapoleon, who belonged 
to the eighteenth — there were but three who can be fairly described as nation-mak- 
ers. Cavour, Lincoln and Bismarck. They were each possessed of the essential 
stuff of which nation-makers are made; infinite resources, backed by imagination, 
courage and tact. V.nvh, as it were, wore his nationality next his bones. Each 
suited his action to the moment, his word to the action. Each, in his public enter- 
]irises was the child of good fortune. When we reflect upon the obstacles that each 
encountered and overcame it seems that from the first God meant Italia Ridcnta, 
and shaped the German empire, and ordained that the Southern Confederacy should 
die and that the American Union should live. 

"It has required nearly thirtj'-four years, and a foreign war, to bring the whole 

people of the United States to a full realization of the simjde truth that we are, 

and always have been, the same people. The South fought a good fight. But it 

could not by any possil)ility succeed. The resistless trend of modern thought was 

set against slavery, and the South — whatever else it stood for — stood for slavery. 

The Southern Confederacy was wiped out in blood and flame. But that vvas all 

540 



HENRY WATTERSON FOR EXPANSION. 547 

that was wiped out. Even the Republican President of the United States — a Union 
soldier — presumably in times past a sectionalist — certainly a most adroit politician 
— has had the sagacit}' — to say nothing of the generosity, of which he has given na 
one reason to account him lacking- — to concede the South its graves; and thanks 
be to God for that, as thanks to him, for there was a time when it seemed that even 
these would be denied us. 

"Now that we have come to be one people in the fancy that wc have always 
been in the fact — that Mother Hoar and Uncle Vest have clasped hands over the 
Treaty of Peace, and Cousin Ben Tillman and Cousin Bill Chandler have quit look- 
ing cross-eyed across the Senate chamber — we have reached another parting of the 
w-ays; for some of us are for expansion, and some of us are against exjjansion, and 
which is right and which is wrong? 

"Clark Howell tells us that this is a very serious question, and Clark Howell 
is right. 'It kinder splits things up,' as Whitcomb Riley would say. It divides par- 
ties. The poor empty bottles, some with and some without stoppers, stand round 
in sore perplexity. They do not know Just what to do. They are disembodied spir- 
its lost in the dark. They can not read their own labels. "What is that big bottle, 
labeled 'Democracy,' and filled by Grover Cleveland — what is that big bottle to do 
when it stumbles against a long, slim bottle, labeled 'Democracy,' but filled with the 
same fluid, by William Jennings Bryan ? And what are these two bottles to do when 
they stumble against a third bottle labeled 'Democracy,' and filled by John V. Alt- 
geld, but filled with quite another kind of fluid? 

"Since the National Democratic Convention of 185C, which nominated James 
Buchanan and John C. Breckinridge, for President and Vice President, and placed 
them upon a platform of progressive free trade and national expansion — and won 
the election — the Democratic party has been largely an aggregation in opposition. 
It was so in 1864, when it put a war candidate on a peace platform; in 1868, when 
it put a hard-money candidate on a soft-money platform; and thence onward in '7'i 
and '80; and it is so at this moment, with an equal number of opposing factions, 
and rival leaders, agreed upon nothing except the label 'Dercocracy,' and a weak,, 
time-serving, irresolute and insincere opposition to what somebody tells it is the 
policy of the Republican administration. Sometimes a smart pretension may serve 
a party through a campaign or two; but the Democratic party, as it is at present 
organized, is not even a smart pretension; because it pretends one thing in the East 
and another thing in the West, and is neither thing in the South. In states, like 
Kentuckj', where it is supposed to have a safe majority, the machine does as it 
pleases, and tells the voters, all too willing and subservient, to help themselves;. 



548 HENRY WATTERSON FOR EXPANSION. 

but in Illinois and Indiana — only just across the river and next door — it feels the 
need of prudence and — wanting all the votes it can get — it is not so ill-mannered 
and cock-sure. In Iowa it has resolved to drop silver altogether. How long can a 
party last locally that is so out of line generally? 

"The leaders who made the revolution of 1896 were able to poll six and a half 
million of votes for their Presidential ticket. That was certainly an encouraging 
manifest. But it was the showing of the entire opposition elements in the United 
States, organized under the stylo and title of an old, historic party; at a time of 
great popular discontent; led by a clean, attractive young Democrat, improvised by 
a set of worn-out and played-out political hacks. Ten years hence we may be coin- 
ing silver dollars by the cart-load to circulate in Cuba, Porto Rico and Manila. Ex- 
pansion, indeed, is the one hope, the only hope, of free silver. Yet here is Mr. 
Bryan — an upright, patriotic man — setting his face against the single contingency 
that can make any realization of his financial theories feasible. 

"What are thoughtful men — wherefrom the preponderating influence upon 
the nation is in tlie long run derived — to think of all this? What can be more 
grotesque than Grover Cleveland and Andrew Carnegie joining hands with William 
Jennings Bryan across the wide gulf of the impossible — when it is too late — merely 
making the re-election of William ilcl-unley doubly sure? How on earth can any 
reasonable man expect to elect Bryan and to beat McKinley on an anti-expansion, 
16 to 1, hard times platform, with expansion already accomplished and with boom- 
ing times — the incident of expansion — already at hand? It can not be done. 

"Look at the personnel of the Democratic organization. There is the chair- 
man of the National Democratic Committee, Senator Jones, of Arkansas. He is 
as good and as true a man as lives; honorable, virtuous, brave and poor. There is 
Senator Daniel, of Virginia; a gentleman and a scholar — a man of genius — with 
the fatal gift of eloquence — who, in these dreadful, and venal affairs, is as helpless 
as a child. There is Senator Vest; a might-have-been, albeit a veteran Senator, 
abounding in talents of many kinds; as was recently said in these columns, 'a poet, 
like Lamar, without the sagacity of Lamar.' A^est, Daniel and Jones arc Democratic 
leaders in the Senate; types of the old order, each representing a constituency apart 
from the moving centers of life and light. We are being constantly told that, as 
Democrats, we can follow them anywhere. But shall Democrats follow them to de- 
struction? That is where they will be leading their followers if they expect in 1900 
to duplicate tlic campaign of 1896. 

"Wliat are the rank and file of Democrats to do about a set of conditions which 
are equally disagreeable and obvious? Are they going to make the campaign oi 



HENRY WATTEESON FOE EXPANSION. 549 

1900 a last-ditch affair, like the effort of the Whigs to elect Fillmore in 1856, or of 
the Federals to beat Jefferson in 1800? Or, are they going to drop these follies, 
and — as there is no real issue to divide parties except the offices — are they going 
to try to elect a President? Expansion is a fact; shall Democrats accept it and, 
formulating a policy based upon it, drop all else? 

"Even now the Eepublican leaders, who rarely fail to take time by the fore- 
lock and who never let go their grip upon the shore-line, are planning to make 
their campaign of 1900 on the liroad principle of National Unification and Expan- 
sion. They are not going to handicap themselves with any ancient platform rub- 
bish. High tariff is no longer wanted by the manufacturers for whom it was in- 
vented. The bloody shirt, having served its turn, has gone to the old clothes bas- 
ket. The President knows his business. At the opportune moment we shall see 
"William McKinley and Joseph Wheeler march down to the footlights, hand in hand, 
the flag above them — beneath them emblazoned on a strij) of red, white and blue, 
'The land we love from eend to eend,' or words to that effect, and then what? What 
are the Democrats going to do al>out it? How are they going to meet it? 

"Their only hope is for a new shuftle, cut and deal of the political pasteboards. 
Every card in the greasy pack they have been playing with has been thumbed, 
crim])ed and dog-eared to death. Every card is a marked card. They might as 
well play with hands spread upon the table, face up, as to hope to win with such 
cards. But, if they can send the fools to the rear, and get their level-headed men 
together, it is not too late for them to lay the foundations for a campaign having 
at least some tangible chance of success before it. 

"There are yet nearly two years of uncertain ground for the ^McKinley admin- 
istration to get over, including a short and a long session of Congress, and, if the 
Democrats be wise, they may greatly profit thereby. But not in the way of factious 
criticism. Nor in the way of blind, undiscriminating opposition. To deal in such 
child's play is simply to throw themselves out of court. They must in good faith 
acce]it the inevitable; they must stand liy the army and the navy; the honor of 
the nation and the sanctity of the flag, holding the powers that be rigidly respon- 
sible for a wise and Just disjiosition of the vast trust which has newly come to its. 
There must be no quibbling about constitutional technicalities where the right of 
the Government to acquire territory is involved; Init construing it as a Heaven-sent 
responsibility, they mttst take the ground that this territory shall be governed only 
upon Democratic principles, looking to one of two ultimate conclusions; either 
annexation as States of the Union, or independent Eepublics, under American pro- 
tection. 



550 IIKXUY WATTERSON FOR EXPANSION. 

"If there ])e saving grace enough left in Democratic councils, these general 
lines will embrace the future jiolicy of the party. If not, the party will die the death 
of the unrighteous. If not, we shall see it frazzle out in 1900 as the Federals frazzled 
out in 1800, leaving William McKinley and those of the Ohio dynasty wlio come 
after him, like their Virginia predecessors, to have it all to themselves, with not 
enough of opposition to make a division of parties, or to disturb the otium cum 
dignitate of the Executive office, or wither the tropic vegetation of the Wliite 
House. 

"The world moves, and it is moving toward the Orient. Europe finds a vent 
in Africa; America cannot afford to be indifferent to Asia. The sea-front of hu- 
man activity may within the coming century be transferred from the Atlantic to 
the Pacific. We must prepare to take our place in the procession of tlie nations. 
Tlic lion has not yet lain down with the lamb; and, until he does so, mutton is 
good to eat. The millennium has not yet made its advent; and until it does that 
arbitration only stands which is efl'ected by the sword. 

"The danger of militarism and the martial spirit need not be gainsaid. It is a 
danger we must risk. But 1- * i;s hope that mankind has made progress in arts as 
well as in arms; that America in the dawn of the twentieth of the centuries is not 
as Rome in the zenith of the first; and tliat, forewarned against imperialism, we 
shall be able to attend to Cfpsar when we get to him. 

"In a word, eighty millions of peojile cannot Ije passive; they cannot escape 
the world's movement; and, sufficiently admonished by the isolation of China and 
its consecjuences, the people of the United States prefer to follow the lead and c.x- 
aniple of England. The die was cast when Dewey raised the Stars and Stripes on 
the other side of a world never too large and all too narrowing, and, for weal or 
woe, — rallying under the banners alike of C'liristianity and Republicanism, — Amer- 
ica is embarked upon the shoreless ocean of modern civilization, carrying in her 
own ships her own ideas and wares, marked, quoted and signed to the furthermost 
ends of the earth. 

"Thus stands the debate between the friends and the foes of national expan- 
sion. Which will vindicate the wisdom of its forecast it is for time to discover. 
The right and the wrong of the argument belong to the hereafter, but that the vic- 
tory of circumstance lies with the advocates of the new departure in national policj', 
and that as composite parts of the great Republic, Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philip- 
pines are already assured, must be quite obvious to the careful student of historic 
parallels and prevailing tendencies. 

"I know that the simple American, who loves his country and is loyal to its 



HEXRY WATTERSOX FOR EXPANSION. 551 

lest traditions, can only look ujion these changes with dismay. To him they seem 
but chaos come again. But such is the life of man. It is the destiny of nations. 

"To those of little faith I would say, be of good hope still! Sursum corda! 
Thus far the public has survived every danger which has in times past assailed the 
governments of the world; the struggle for existence; the foreign invasion; the 
disputed succession; geographic friction; civil strife; and it is now stronger than 
ever it was, its faith renewed, its credit intact, and its primacy known of all men. 
Let us believe that the untoward events of the war with Spain were brought about 
for some allwisc purpose by the Supreme Ruler of ilen, and that that hand which 
has led American manhood through every emergency to the one goal of the Amer- 
ican Union has in store for that Union even greater uses and glory than irradiated 
the dreams and blessed the prayers of the God-fearing men who gave it life." 



t-j . (jJoStu^ 



CHAPTER VI. 

CARL SCTTFRZ OrrOSED TO EXPAXSION. 

Is It Our Policy that tlie Filipinos Shall Be Subjects or Citizens? — The Specifica- 
tions of the New Departure We Arc Taking — We Are Cultivating a Passion 
for Conquest- — The Friendship of England Is Good to Have, Not to Xeed — 
The New Policy Demands a Great Standing Army — If We Have Rescued 
the Fnhappy baughlors of Spain from Tyranny We Need Not Marry 
the Girls. 

]\fr. Schurz wanted to know before the treaty with Spain was ratified by the 
American Senate \5'hether the Filipinos were to be subjects or citizens. The Span- 
ish war was declared and after a fe^v vigorous blows the feeble enemy was helpless 
at our feet. 

"The whole scene seemed to have suddenly changed. According to the solemn 
proclamation of our Government, the war had been undertaken solely for the liber- 
ation of Cuba, as a war of humanity and not of conquest. But our easy victories 
liad put conquest within our reach, and when our arms occupied foreign territory, 
a loud demand arose that, jdcdge or no pledge to the contrary, the conquests should 
l)e kept, even the Philippines on the other side of the globe, and that as to Cuba 
herself, independence would be only a provisional formality. Why not? was the cry. 
Has not the career of the republic almost from its very beginning been one of terri- 
torial expansion? Has it not acquired Louisiana, Florida, Texas, the vast countries 
that came to us through the Mexican war, and Alaska, and has it not digested them 
well? Were not those acquisitions mucji larger than those now in eontemjilation? 
If the Republic could digest the old, why not the new? What is the difference? 

"Only look with an unclouded eye, and you will soon discover differences 
enough warning you to lieware. There are five of decisive importance: 

"1. All the former acquisitions were on this iimtiMciit, and, excepting Alaska, 
contiguous to our borders. 

"2. They were situated, not in the trojiical, but in the temperate zone, wlicre 
Democratic institutions thrive, and where our people could migrate in mass. 

"3. They were but very thinly peopled — in fact, without any population tliat 
would have been in the way of new settlements. 

"i. They could be organized as territories in the usual manner, with the ex- 
pectation that they would ])resently come into the Fnion as self-governing states 
with populations substantially homogeneous to our own. 

"5. They did not require a material increase of our army and navy, either 



GAEL SCIIURZ 0rP(3SED TO EXPAXSION. 553 

for their subjection to our rule or for their defense against any proljable foreign at- 
tack by their being in our possession. 

"Even of our far-away Alaska it can be said that, although at present a pos- 
session of dovibtful value, it is at least mainly on this continent, and may at some 
future time, when the inhabitants of the British possessions happily wish to unite 
with us, be within our uninterrupted Iioundaries. 

"Compare now with our old acquisitions as to all these important points those 
at present in view. 

"They are not continental, not contiguous to our present domain, but beyond 
seas, the Philippines many thousand miles distant from our coast. They are all 
situated in the tropics, where people of the northern races, such as Anglo-Saxons, 
or, generally speaking, people of Germanic blood, have never migrated in mass to 
stay, and they are more or less densely populated, parts of them as densely as Massa- 
chusetts — their populations consisting almost exclusively of races to whom the trop- 
ical climate is congenial — Spanish Creoles mixed with negroes in the West Indies 
and Malays, Tagals, Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, Nigritos and various more or less 
barbarous tribes in the Philippines. 

"When the question is asked whether we may hope to adapt those countries 
and populations to our system of government^ the advocates of annexation answer 
cheerily that when they belong to us we shall soon 'Americanize' them. This may 
mean that Americans in sufficiently large numbers will migrate there to determine 
the character of those populations so as to assimilate them to our own. 

"If we take these new regions, we shall be well entangled in that contest for 
territorial aggrandizement wdiich distracts other nations and drives them far beyond 
their original design. So it will be inevitably with us. We shall want new con- 
quests to protect that which we already possess. The greed of speculators working 
upon our government will [lUsh us from one point to another, and we shall have 
new conflicts upon our hands, almost without knowing how we got into them. It 
has always been so under such circumstances and always will be: This means more 
and more soldiers, ships and guns. 

"A singular delusion has taken hold of the minds of otherwise clear-headed 
men. It is that our new friendship with England will serve firmly to secure the 
world's peace. Nobody can hail that friendly feeling between the two nations more 
warmly than I do, and I fervently hope it will last. But I am profoundly convinced 
that if this friendship results in the two countries setting out to grasp 'for the 
Anglo-Saxon,' as the phrase is, whatever of the earth may be attainable — if they 
hunt in couple, they will surely fall out about the game, and the first serious quar- 



554 CARL SCIUKZ OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

rel, or at least one of the first, we shall have, will he with Great Britain. And as 
family feuds are the bitterest, that feud will be apt to become one of the most de- 
plorable in its consequences. 

"No nation is, or ought to be, unselfish. England, in her friendly feeling to- 
Tvard us, is not inspired by mere sentimental benevolence. The anxious wish of 
many Englishmen that we should take the Philippines is not free from the consid- 
eration that if we do so we shall for a long time depend on British friendship to 
maintain our position on that field of rivalry and that Britain will derive ample 
profit from our dependence on her. 

"This is plain. If Englishmen think so we have no fault to find with them. 
But it would be extremely foolish on our part to close our eyes to the fact. British 
friendship is a good thing to have, but perhaps not so good a thing to need. If 
■we are wise we shall not put ourselves in a situation in which we shall need it. Brit- 
ish statesmanship has sometimes shown great skill in making other nations fight its 
battles. This is very admirable from its i)oint of view, liut it is not so pleasant for 
the nations so used. 

"We are already told that we shall need a regular army of at least 100,000 men, 
three-fourths of whom are to serve in our new 'possessions.' The question is wheth- 
er this necessity is to be only temporary or permanent. Look at the cost. Last year 
the support of the army proper required about $23,00u,000. It is computed that 
taking the increased costliness of the service in the tropics into account, the army 
under the new dispensation will require about $150,000,000, that is, $137,000,000 
a year more. It is also officially admitted that the possession of the Pliilippines 
"would render indispensable a much larger increase of the navy than would other- 
wise l)e necessary, costing untold millions for the building and equipment of ships, 
and untold millions every year for their maintenance and for the increased number 
of officers and men. What we shall have to spend for fortifications and the like can- 
not now he computed. But there is a burden upon us which in like weight no 
other nation has to bear. To-day, thirty-three years after the Civil War, we have 
a pension roll of very nearly 1,000,000 names. And still they come. We paid to 
pensioners over $145,000,000 last year, a sum larger than the annual cost of the 
whole military peace establishment of the German empire, including its pension roll. 
Our recent Spanish war will, according to a moderate estimate, add at least $20,- 
000,000 to our annual pension payments. But if we send troops to the tropics and 
keep them there we must look for a steady stream of pensioners from that quarter, 
for in the tropics soldiers are 'used up' very fast, even if they have no campaigning 
to do. 




OFFICIAL RESIDENCE OF DE LESSEES AT COLON, COLOMBIA. 




COFFEE-Cl'RIN(i EST.MiLlSHMLNT AT SAN JOSE, COSTA RICA. 







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CARL SCHURZ OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 557 

"I ask iu all candor, taking President McKinley at his word, will tne forcible 
annexation of the Philippines by our code of morals not be criminal aggression — a 
self-confessed crime? I ask further, if the Cubans, as Congress declared, are and 
of right ought to be free and independent, can anybody tell me why the Porto 
Picans and the Filipinos ought not of right to be free and independent? Can you 
sincerely recognize the right to freedom and independence of one and refuse the 
same right to another in the same situation, and then take his land? Would not 
that be double dealing of the most shameful sort? 

"Here are our otTicial reports before us, telling us that of late years our export 
trade has grown enormously, not ^nly of farm products, but 'of the products of our 
irianufacturing industries; in fact, that 'our sales of manufactured goods have con- 
tinued to extend with a facility and promptitude of results which have excited the 
serious concern of countries that for generations had not only controlled their home 
markets, but had practically monopolized certain lines of trade in other lauds.' 

"That our victories have devolved upon us certain duties as to the people of the 
conquered islands I readily admit. But are they the only duties we have to per- 
form, or have they suddenly become paramount to all other duties? I deny it. I 
deny that the difties we owe to the Cubans and the Porto Eicans and the Filipinos 
and the Tagals of the Asiatic islands absolve us from our duties to the 75,000,000 
of our own people and to their posterity. I deny that they oblige us to destroy the 
moral credit of our own republic by turning this loudly heralded war of liberation 
and humanity into a land-grabliing game and an act of criminal aggression. I deny 
that they compel us to aggravate our race troubles, to bring upon us the constant 
danger of war and to subject our people to the galling burden of increasing arma- 
ments. If we have rescued those unfortunate daughters of Spain, the colonies, from 
the tyranny of their cruel father, I deny that we are therefore in honor bound to 
marry any of the girls or to take them all into our household, where they may dis- 
turb and demoralize our whole family. I deny that the liberation of those Spanish 
dependencies morally constrains us to do anything that would put our highest mis- 
sion to solve the great problem of democratic government in jeopardy or that would 
otherwise endanger the vital interests of the Eepublic. Whatever our duties to them 
may be, our duties to our own country and peojile stand first, and from this stand- 
point we have, as sane men and patriotic citizens, to regard our obligation to take 
care of the future of those islands and their people." 



e. 




CHAPTER VII. 

MFRAT IIALSTKAD FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

Expansion Is tlic Doctrine of tlie Fathers — There Was Xot a Tenth of the Territory 
We Now Possess in the Thirteen Colonies When Jefferson Wrote the Decla- 
ration of Independence — Andrew Jackson Was an Expansionist — >So Was 
Wm. II. Seward — Admiral Dewey Is the Author of Our Philippine Policy — 
Andrew Carneaie and P>ritish India — Should England Give Up Gitiraltar, 
Egypt and India? — If So, Why Xot Ireland, Scotland and Wales? — Aguin- 
aldo's Exile with a Certified Check — Senator Hoar's Forgetfulness of the 
Essential Facts in the Philippine Situation — The American Army Have 
Fought in Self-Defense, and in the ^'indication of the Faith and Honor 
Pledged in the Final Article of the Capitulation of the Spaniards in llanila. 

The footsteps of the fathers of the Ecpnhlic from the time the French floated 
the Mississippi and St. Lawrence rivers pointed West and South — expanding the 
area of the English settlements — and this early manifestation of destiny continued 
to the Southern and Western lands of the continent, when the British in their turn 
sailed with the gulf stream to Halifax and beyond. 

Wlien a boy George Washington visited the Bermudas with his elder brother, 
who served with Admiral Yernon in the West Indies, and, returning to Virginia, 
began to explore the Ohio couatry before he was 21 years of age upon a mission 
to oust the French, and was expanding his landed possessions in that direction as 
long as he lived. Thus is linked in the life of the Father of his Country the West 
Indies and the lands beyond the Alleghenies, to which in his crowded and busy life 
he found time to pay six visits. ' 

John Adams sturdily refused a proposition to give u]i the Ohio, Wabash and 
Illinois country to the English, as Canada was given, rather than go on with the 
sorrowful hardships of warfare — though even Benjamin Franklin favored yielding 
to the pretensions of England in the Northwest for the sake of peace — but Franklin 
was old and weary, and this episode has been forgiven in forgetf ulncss. Fortunately, 
George Rogers Clark, born in the same country with Jefferson, had a friend in Gov- 
ernor Patrick Henry and was authorized by him to raise men, and given a lot of 
paper money to undertake a secret expedition which was to dispossess the English 
at Vincennes and Kaskaskia, and he did it with surprisingly stinted means, and 
Clark, "the Hannibal of the West," in spite of failures, mistakes and sorrows, is a 
name written on the roll of the immortals. 

Thomas Jefferson, the father, as the records show, of both the Republican and 

558 



MUEAT HALSTEAD FOR EXPANSIOiST. 559 

Democratic parties, surpassed in glorious acliievemeiit the authorship of the Dec- 
laration of Independence, in purchasing twice the amount of land we got from 
England by the concessions of the treaty with her when she surrendered her thir- 
teen colonies to self-government. We began in 1783 with 827,844 square miles. 
Without counting our recent acquisitions of islands our area is 3,603,884 square 
miles. Jefferson's purchase was 1,171,931 square miles. Thus the greater glory of 
Jefferson came from a conscious violation of his own interpretation of the Consti- 
tution in buying land from Napoleon Bonaparte, who had no title to it, save that 
he had taken it red-handed and high-handed from Spain, whose abuse of her colo- 
nies made it a public virtue to capture them, and England was getting ready to spoil 
the spoiler. Xotwithstanding ^he violation of the Constitution and the deficiency 
of the land title, the bargain stuck and was one of the greatest events in the making 
of our nation. 

Andrew Jackson confirmed the purchase with a quit-claim deed — the battle of 
N"ew Orleans, fought after the treaty had been signed — a precedent to be cited in 
the case of the Philippines, along with Kaskaskia and Vincennes, if any of the 
monarchs want to see our papers for real estate holdings. We shall adhere, certainly, 
to our precedents and principles. 

It is strange that in the second third of the first century of the Ecpublic the 
greater political leaders of that era should have lost the lesson of the Jctfersouian 
expansion. Webster and Clay faltered on the high road when America moved on, 
and we gained Texas by annexation; and Xew Mexico, Colorado (in part), Arizona 
and California by the sword. It was Andrew Jackson's influence in his last days 
that overwhelmingly carried the acceptance of imperial Texas, and James K. Polk 
and Andrew Johnson (I have Just named the three Tennessee Presidents) gave us 
our Pacific front, with the aid of an Oregon missionary — including Golden-gated 
and golden-walled California and Alaska, crowded with riches in reserve, and the 
Aleutian Islands. 

In the latter third of our first century there was an evidence of a broadening 
of statesmanship in recognizing the destiny of the country, that — instead of crumb- 
ling through Civil War and consenting to weakness because the brethren of the 
several states shed each other's blood — grew strong in warfare and became a majestic 
nation. William H. Seward and Charles Sumner joined hands with Andrew John- 
son in seciiring the magnificent bargain with Russia that gave us footing on the 
shores of the Bering Sea and to our flag in the summer days — from sunrise in 
Maine to sunset on our archipelago in the shadow of Siberia — six additional hours 
of sunshine. 



Sno iU'HAT IIALSTEAD FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

The paths- by wliich the fathers marked out this country for greatness pre- 
vented the continent from dismemberment in European and Spanish- American 
fasliion. The footstejjs of the nation builders are there. Benignant Providence, 
sound statesmanship, history, tradition, the instructed judgment of Americanism, 
are not failing to guide our footstejis aright. The name of "William H. Seward be- 
longs in the roll of honor of the promoters of American expansion, because in his 
maturity he outgrew the leaders he followed in his youth and closed with Russia, 
when her good-will ofl'ering of Alaska came, and, going further, sought to pur- 
chase the Danish Islands in the West Indius and to include Iceland and Greenlaml. 
With this object, he had compiled in 1868 a report of the resources of Iceland and 
Greenland, but public opinion then regarded his ideas as romantic. 

Shall we permit to go unchallenged the feebleness of the folly that especially 
opposes the acquisition of islands becau.se they are surroundi-d l)y water, and .say that 
we never did such a thing as cross salt water to get to land until in the annexation 
of Hawaii? AVhy, we must jmt to sea to find a free road to Alaska; and it is worth 
remembering that the art of navigation is so far perfected that the seas are the 
cheapest roads on the globe and are open to endless competition. Salt water does 
not damage land, and with all our e.\]ierience in the ]Hilicy of expansion we have 
never added an acre to our national domain that was not good for us. It is not likely 
that we shall do so. 

We keep the Philippines because we must. We have destroyed the Si)anish 
Government there and are resjionsible to civilization for the result. How can an 
American think seriously of yielding to any jiower the fruits of Dewey's victory? 
When he destroyed the Spanish fleet, according to orders issued on the first day of 
the war with Spain, he did not abandon the scene of his conquest, but, animated 
by the spirit of the fathers, he followed tlieir footsteps and held on to the great 
prize he had won. 

It should be understood that the policy of Admiral Dewey in remaining at 
Manila has been determined by the necessities of his situation. lie has been con- 
strained to hold the fruits of his victory, to ask for re-enforcements to serve on land 
and sea. Of course, they have been sent to liim. The American Admiral who won 
the glorious jiopularity that commands the unanimous vote of Congress in his 
hofior, in spite of all the grumbling about the JIcKinley administration, wants, and 
must have, if we are true to ourselves and decent in treatment to those who serve 
•us beyond the seas, the superior physical force in the waters of the Philippines! We 
have there an army of 20,000 men. Shall we allow- the basis of operations upon 
which they rest — from which they must receive their supplies of ammunition, and. 



MUEAT HALSTEAD FOR EXPANSION. 5G1 

largel}', their rations — to fall into iinfriondly liands? The Admiral had no home in 
the Oriental ocean Ijut the one he had conquered and there was no jjlace to go if lie 
left it. He was like the man in Colonel Robert Ingcrsoll's story who couldn't go 
anywhere else because "every other jilace was shut up." If the Admiral left Manila 
bay he must have proceeded to a coal station, and thence to another coal station, 
and so on, getting only enough coal at a time to take him where he could do the 
same thing before moving on. Those who are against the policy of the administra- 
tion condemn and would betray our famous Admiral and degrade, so far as their 
influence could do it, the American army at Manila, which is fighting, not against 
liberty, for imjiutation to that effect, no matter where or from whom it conies, is 
false and a shame. The army is fighting for the higher — that is, American — civili- 
zation, religious liberty and our national rights under international law. Those who 
arc fighting the American army are doing it under the false pretenses of a dema- 
gogue, who is neither soldier, leader, nor statesman, and never appealed to any frac- 
tion of the inhabitants of the Philippines larger than one-half uf 1 per cent of the 
people. These desperadoes and their mob would not wait for the ratification of 
the treaty with Spain. They are now legally Spaniards, as they are firebugs, 
ingrates, assassins, and, politically, aiding a preposterous intrigue. So far as this 
is not a fanaticism of superstition, it is craziness. In this country the Tegalo party, 
whether composed of capitalists gone mad or political adventurers on a false scent, 
seeking a new departure, or taking ground against our national advancement and 
glory (and are examples of a disease of opposition), will get their reward in the 
public contempt. If we could imagine their success to be possible, it could only be 
accomplished Ijy the defeat of the American army of Philippine occupation. 

It does not follow that if we conquer islands, drive out Spaniards or other op- 
pressors, and spread the flag that is our popular and national symbol over people 
who are strangers, that we shall of necessity go on multiplying States. We must 
safeguard Americanism, and the effective way to do it is to stand firm on the bed- 
rock principle that we want more territory for the great hereafter of our country, 
but not more States, now or soon. Certainly we can hold territory as territory for- 
ever. Contact with us and our institutions will Americanize our possessions. 

We have a graver question at home than we can find abroad. It is most diffi- 
cult, because imbedded in the structure of the States. We made the radical mistake 
of adding the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution when the effect is to obscure 
the fourteenth, which was the firm ground to stand ujjon, and both are practically 
destroyed. 

T^iere will not Ije, and should not Ije, manhood suffrage in the sense of indis- 



562 MURAT IIALSTEAD FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

criminate male suffrage in Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii or tlie Pliilippines, until some 
time lia!> passed and there are many changes. Immediate manhood suffrage in our 
new possessions is as impracticable, as impossible, a* the re-establishment of Amer- 
ican slavery in tlie States. The alleged insurgent governments in Cuba and Luzon 
must be brushed aside, for they are not of the people. We do not want a govern- 
ment of Cuban bondholders or any exclusive prerogatives in the hands of the 
Tagalo tribe of ilalays. 

Americans will work wonders in the tropical islands, as on the Xorth American 
continent. We shall overcome insurgents in the Indias, West and East, by the irre- 
sisti')le attraction of gravitation of the overshadowing power of the mighty Republic 
that is too great to be longer overlooked by others and would shirk duties by over- 
looking herself. 

I have read with care what Mr. Carnegie says. He would belittle the British 
Empire as he would restrict the American Republic. Perhaps he can afford it, but 
he is not in touch with the people of either country. 

He would eliminate India, and the logic of that would be the abandonment 
of the colonial system that makes England matchless. 

If England gives up India, Egypt goes, of course, and Malta and Gibraltar, all 
the British possessions in Africa and in the West Indies. With them would go 
Hongkong and all the vast interests in the commerce of China. With these Canada 
would go and Bermuda. Then the Jersey Islands, Ireland, Wales and Scotland 
would go, also New Zealand, and the Australian continent depart in peace. Xow, 
England is a great European, African, American, Asiatic, Australian power. 

Jilr. Carnegie's policy would strip her of her dominions and give her the rank 
of Holland and Denmark. 

If the policy he would impose upon the United States had been the policy of 
the fathers of the Republic, it would have made a small, snug, neat republic 
on the Atlantic slope, leaving the cotton States, the Ohio country, the whole 
continent from the Alleghenies to the Pacific, to the British, French and Spaniards. 

George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, 
Andrew Johnson, Charles Sumner and William H. Seward were American expan- 
sionists. They were good enough Americans for me. William McKinley and his 
cabinet are the same sort of Americans. They are walking in the paths blazed 
and trodden by the forefathers. They are jiroviding the generations to come with 
land. There is nothing better for the people than good land. Mr. Carnegie does 
not seem to have heard of the States of California, Washington and Oregon. 
He does not eontemjjlate our front on the Pacific Ocean. He is taking a ^jarrow 



MUEAT HALSTEAD FOE EXPANSION. 563 

view — one that i> neither American nor Englisli; one that is unworthy of regard 
l\y tile Knglish-s]:ealving people. He seems to think the dragon of free trade will 
enter upon us through that open door and devour us. The last time I studied an 
"utterance hy ]\Ir. Carnegie on an economic question he had ceased to be a pro- 
tectionist, and was willing to chance it with free trade so far as his product of 
steel was concerned. I do not ask him to be consistent, Ijut he will upset his 
cart if he makes a -turn in the road on an acute angle. 

Wlien Dewey got his orders to destroy the Spanish fleet, Aguinaldo was in exile, 
having retired with a certified check for 440,000 Mexican dollars, taken by 
requisition from a ilanila bank that never has seen and never will see a dollar 
■of the money. That certified check for the proceeds of the bank robbery wafted 
away to Hongkong Aguinaldo and thirty-two of his "compatriots." The Filipino 
war against Spain vras started in his absence, and he was dug up by the American 
consuls at SingapoiM?, Manila, and Hongkong and was in Hongkong when the 
Spanish fleet was destroyed, making his appearance soon afterward at C'avite. 
He has lived in comfortable quarters, far from scenes of strife, ever since, and 
no one except those belonging to his military gang has ever voted for him for 
anything. 

Our men in public life who have taken upon themselves to recognize the 
Filipino assassins in the thickets firing upon our soldiers — and Senator Hoar, with 
his great ability and always admirable command of phrases, is especially con- 
spicuous — have omitted to provide themselves with the essential information in the 
•case. Let us run over the facts that utterly overthrow all the gilded structures 
of Senator Hoar's vivid eloquence. Admiral Dewey was ordered to destroy the 
Spanish Philippine fleet, and did it, and then he had to stay at ilanila or abandon 
the Asiatic coast and our commerce to the gunboats of the Spaniards that were 
not within the range of our destroyers. Aguinaldo returned from exile and got 
the prestige of American victory. He was not at any time besieging Manila, but 
skirmishing in the high grass, and never could have taken the city. He wanted 
to make conditions about allowing American troops to land — demanded to know 
their object. He never consulted the people of the Philippines. He raised a 
swarm of semi-savages, whose passion was for plunder and revenge. They had 
to be put out of their alleged trenches before General Greene could get at the 
Spaniards. The American army, when the American fleet had broken the Spanish 
defense by the sea, that was the key to Manila, took the town, and the Spanish 
army capitulated, "the faith and honor of the American army" being pledged 
to preserve the lives and property of citizens, to protect them from the heedless 



■>CA 



MIKAT IIALSTEAD FUK EXPAXSIOX. 



barbaric occupancy of the Aguinaldo horde. In case the Americans abandoned the 
conquest the terms of the Spanish surrender were that their arms should be 
returned — their rifles and carlridj:es. Ten thousand Spaniards were not to be 
turned over for Malay butchery. AVe would have been dishonored if that had 
been done. The Spaniards, if they had held Manila, and they could have done 
it as ajjainst the natives, would have re-enforced the troops in Manila. Admiral 
Dewey was disposed to make the best of Aguinaldo and his "compatriots," but 
they soon displayed themselves as threatening pretenders, malignant so far as wo 
were concerned. The reason Aguinaldo assigned for returning with the permis- 
sion of Admiral Dewey to the Isle of Luzon was to prevent the Filipinos from 
making common cause with Spain to repel the invaders — that is, the deliverers of 
the Filipinos — and he tried to prevent our men from being supplied with wholesome 
food and water. The conduct of those who usurp the authority of the Philippine 
people and have dared to menace Americans trying in vain to preserve the peace, 
was most irritating, aggressive and vicious long before they frantically rushed 
upon our lines, believing they could destroy the army of occupation and the city 
too. This was the -full exhibition of the character of these "people." It was a 
disclosure, not of intelligent purposes, but of the murderous instincts of ambi- 
tious barbarians. The venerable Senator from Massachusetts has bestowed upon 
them, to assail the policy of his country thus far of necessity in the severest and 
most searching sense of the word, virtues they do not possess or comprehend. 




CHAPTER VIII. 
MR. DOLLIVER OF IOWA FOR EXPANSION". 

Room for All Sorts of Speeches, but Only One Course of Action — The President 
Did Not Take Initial Responsibility of Disturbing the Peace — Dr. Park- 
hurst's Boomerang Criticism — Cheap Newspapers Full of Malice — Americans 
on Blanco's Platform — Our Experience with Acquired Territory — Andrew 
Jackson's Territorial Policy — Two Mourners in a Palace Over the Collapse 
of the Republic — Bryan's Pitched Battle with American History — Not 
Canned Freedom, but Liberty on the Half Shell — A Tribute to General 
Wheeler — In "The Fear of God and Nothing Else," as Bismarck Said, 
Take Up Duty. 

Mr. Dolliver of Iowa referred to the "proposed retreat of the nation of America" 
and to the "desultory firing on the Government from Ijehind the barricades of 
banquet tables,'' and said: 

"AVhile there is room for everybody's speeches, there is room only for a single 
course of action. They alone who must put their judgment to the final test of per- 
formance have need to be definite and coherent in their opinions, and it begins 
to look as if the speechmakers had taken advantage of the fact that, while 
everything can be said, only one thing can at last be done. 

"In this respect the position of the President differs from that of the states- 
men at large. They are at liberty to e.xhort, to rave and scold and jest. He 
must act. 

"As for those who deliberately inflamed the passions of the hour, teaching the 
American people to despise the resources of diplomacy and to visit our State 
Department with contempt; for those especially who boast that 'they took the 
Republican party,' if I may recall the glowing language of my amiable friend 
from Missouri, 'by the scruff of the neck' and dragged it into the declaration of 
war; for these men now to multiply the national difficulties by the devices of a 
reckless partisan agitation indicates at least that we still have a level of politics 
in the United States which has a good deal to learn about the ethics, if not about 
the etiquette, of statesmanship and patriotism. 

"No one w^ho has followed with even a casual attention the history of the 

past year can doubt that the troubles which now lie in our path come in a straight 

line from the original act by which the nation accepted the alternative of war. 

The blood that has been shed, the treasure that has been expended, the victories 

5G.5 



5G6 MR. D0LLI\]:K UF IOWA FOR EXPANSION. 

that have been wou, llie scattered territories that have fallen from the feeble 
possession of the Spanish Crown — all these are only a part of the context of the 
original resolution of April "^ii, 1898. 

"It is historically certain that the initial responsibility for disturbing the 
peace of the country does not lie with the President, but with the Congress, and 
beyond the Congress, with the people of the United States. Our intervention 
against Spain was a national act in the most perfect sense. The President is 
accused of slavishly following public opinion without regard to duty, not to speak 
of the lighter offense of finding out what the people of the United States 
think before he acts. Dr. Parkhurst, a famous clergyman of New York, derided 
the President because 'he liad put his ear to the ground in order to catch the 
reverberations that roll in from the wild West.' If the gentleman from Indiana, 
by what he said here to-day, meant to insult the Chief Magistrate, as Dr. Park- 
hurst aimed to wound the sensibilities of a portion of our common country, he 
unintentionally paid to William McKinley while he lives a tribute which his- 
torians have lovingly laid upon the grave of Abraham Lincoln — that in times of 
peril, of doubt, and of uncertainty he was great enough to stand by the side of 
the humble millions of his countrymen and to go forward in their strength in 
the discharge of his official duties. The President cannot be accused, without a 
profligate distortion of the truth, of any delinquency or hesitation in executing 
the express will and purpose of the nation. No voice of any respectability has yet 
been raised in such an accusation against him. It is true that as victory came 
in sight an organized conspiracy of scandal and detraction was set on foot, with 
partisan motives, to cover an administrative department of the Government with 
disgrace. 

'"Cheap newspapers have filled the world with the inventions of malice, and 
■cheap politicians have pushed their M'ay in among the mourners at every soldier's 
grave to poison broken hearts with suspicion and hatred against the Government 
in order to reproach an administration which under unusual trials has led the 
American people, with losses comparatively insignificant, into a victory rich and 
splendid in the fruits of liberty. 

"General Blanco, leaving Havana, in liis farewell proclamation, the last of 
a series of grotesque state papers more harmless than Spanish artillery, uttered 
a complaint, not the platform of the Anti-imperialistic League, tliat the United 
States was a fraud because under cover of liberating Cuba we bombarded Porto 
Rico and invaded the Isle of Luzon. Who is willing to blot from our history 
the immortal story of that morning at Cavite when, under frowning batteries 



MIJ. DOLLR'ER OF IOWA FOR EXPANSION. .'inr 

and in the midst of the unknown perils of the strange waters, American sailors, 
with the easy confidence of skill and bearing won for our arms a victory without 
precedent in the legends and traditions of the sea? Are we going to expunge 
the record of the thanks of Congress to the officers and seamen of the 
Asiatic fleet? We have presented its Admiral with a sword. Are we going to 
hand it to him with an expression of regret, couched in the language of the 
gentleman from Indiana, that we did not have sense enough to order him to 
depart headlong from the Philippine coasts? 

'•Some men talk seriously of hauling the flag down and others in jest about 
hauling down the President. But what are you going to do with Admiral George 
Dewey? He has not attended any banquets; he has sent in no complaints about 
his bill of fare; he has not disposed of his celebrity to the magazine editors for 
cash. For nearly a year, under a tropical sun, he has held the forts, asking only 
that we send a first-class statesman to help him gather up the fruits of his achieve- 
ment. It may be that all our first-class statesmen are too busy with their consti- 
tutional quibbles, their legal technicalities, and their morbid affectation of superior 
virtues, and that our statesmen of the second class are too much engrossed with 
the question of embalmed beef to be of much help to the Admiral as he stands 
alone on the bridge of his flagship waiting for the civil authority to come to his 
support. But may we not at least say to him that the Government of the United 
States, which issued the command under which he acted on the 1st of May, 
accepts the whole responsibility for his execution of orders? Can we applaud 
him for doing his duty while we sit shivering and whimpering before ours? What 
is there in the national spirit of America that invites or even tolerates this nerve- 
less and debilitated attitude in the presence of responsibilities like these? 

"Do we not rather dwarf and belittle the things which he has done unless we 
make them part of the future of the Eepublic? For he has earned, if ever man 
can earn from his fellow-man, the exultant salutation of the human race. Well done, 
thou good and faithful servant of mankind. 

"I have heard it said that the treaty involves the violation of our Constitution 
in acquiring these possessions, and of our Declaration of Independence in governing 
them. But we have the words of Chief Justice Marshall for it that the power to 
make war and to frame treaties necessarily involves the power to acquire terri- 
tory, and that the power to acquire territory implies the power to govern and 
control it. Nor are we as a nation entirely without experience in the government 
.of acquired territory. 



5C,8 ilE. DOLLIYER OF IOWA FOE EXPANSION. 

"When our Constitution was adopted we had on hand a vast territory belong- 
ing to tlie public domain, and we managed to govern it for a long period of time 
with scant reference to the views of its population, under a despotism in which the 
constitutional theory of government had nci place whatever. 

"In 1803 we acquired the Territory of Louisiana by a treaty. It was inhabited 
by many nationalities and native tribes, both numerous and warlike. We gov- 
erned it by a military despotism in which the inhabitants took no part. It was 
divided along the thirty-third parallel of hititude into two parts. That south of 
the line was called Orleans, and all the rest described by the general name of 
Louisiana. In neither division were the people in any respect consulted as to 
the method of their government. The French and the Spaniards were left without 
voice in the matter because they knew too much, and the Indians were left out 
because they did not know enough. 

"The history of these territorial governments is most instructive, especially to 
one who is anxious to avoid visionary interpretations of the political creed of our 
ancestors. Not less instructive is the record of our territorial government of 
Florida, the ilexican cessions, California, and Alaska. The Territory of Florida 
has a history specially interesting, because after it was acquired by the treaty of 
1819 from Spain, President ilonroe sent General Jackson there to govern it, with 
powers limited by only two conditions, one that he should impose no new taxes 
and the other that he should not make or confirm any land grants. In all other 
respects his powers were unlinuted, and whatever he did, singularly enough, was 
authenticated in these words: 

" 'By Major-General Andrew Jackson, Governor of the Provinces of the 
Floridas, exercising the powers of the Captain-Generakand Iiitendent of the Island 
of Cuba over the said provinces and uf the Governors of said provinces respect- 
ively.' 

"It is little wonder that Thomas II. iJenton, in his early years, should have 
been impressed 'with such illustrations of Congressional power over territories,' 
and that in his old age, reviewing his long jiolitical association with General 
Jackson, should have written down the following c(nnment on our form of Gov- 
ernment as our fathers understood it: 

" Tn the United States, where people are accustomed to the regular admin- 
istration of justice, the summary proceedings of General Jackson appeared to be 
harsh and even lawless; but they were all justified by the Administration and 
sanctioned by the negative action of Congress. And in Florida, where they took 



MR. DOLLRER OF IOWA FOR EXPANSION. 569 

place, and where it was seen that no wealth or power could screen the oppressor, 
and that governors, judges, and rich merchants were laid by the heels like common 
offenders, and the protecting shield of law and justice thrown over the humble 
and helpless — in this province, so long a prey to oppression and corruption, the 
conduct of General Jackson appeared like an emanation of divine justice, greatly 
exalting the American character. * * * He constantly repulsed the idea of the 
presence of the Constitution in the territory committed to his charge, and in that 
repulsion he was sustained by the Federal Executive Government at AYashington 
and by each House of Congress, each of these authorities refusing to entertain — as 
breaches of the Constitution^the complaints forwarded against him by those who 
had been militarily dealt with under his government.' 

"Not long ago, in a palace in the city of New York, two men sat down to 
weep over the downfall of the Republic — one a colonel of volunteers, who had 
just esca])cd from the army, with a yell of oratorial triumph, leaving behind 
him a trail of interviews from Tampa to Washington like the borealis race that 
flit ere you can point their place. His tears flowed, if anything, a little more 
freely than his companion's, for this was not the first time he had been called 
upon to note the collapse of free institutions, and his case was all the worse on 
account of his natural repugnance to taking the oath of office amid the falling 
columns and broken altars of the temple of liberty. The other was an iron- 
monger who a few years ago, seeing the advantages of the steel pool, had advocated 
the consolidation of England and America into a trust to regulate the world's 
political business, each to receive for its common stock equivalent shares of the 
syndicate, but just now enlisted under the banner of the Anti-Imperialist League, 
anxious to bring the United States out of the war with Spain, with nothing to 
show for the national sacrifices except a few well-defined cases of anarchy in the 
West Indies and the borders of Asia. 

"The two talked together earnestly and long, with no differences of opinion 
and only such occasional hitches in the conversation as inevitably arise when two 
persons, each knowing it all, try to tell one another something. At last they 
separate, one of them to spread the alarm by word of mouth, the other by stroke 
of pen; both of them to learn in time how vain and impotent is the babble of 
men against the increasing purpose that runs through the ages. 

"Colonel Bryan pitched his first battle against American history at Chicago, 
before a club that for some inscrutable reason was engaged in celebrating the 
victory of New Orleans. Speaking on the anniversary of that battle — a battle 
fought on soil wliidi Jefferson purchased from Napoleon by the military governor 



570 MR. DOLLIVEE OF lOWA lOU EXPANSIOX. 

who subsequently obtained the consent of the resident Spaniards and Indian natives 
to our first fjovernmcnt of the provinces of the Floridas — he himcnted any further 
growth of the United States, demanded instant and unconditional independence 
for the Philippine tribes, and wound up b}- calling on Moses, who died on an 
expedition to exterminate the nations of Canaan, to come Inuk from his unknown 
grave and unite witli the Democratic party in its present campaign against the 
progress of civilization. 

"Now, all this would he very thrilling and very satisfactory if these sudden 
apostles of lesser Anurica would only learn to speak the same language, liut the 
very night the Colonel of Volunteers was in Chicago former Vice-President Steven- 
son was in Omaha, at the same kind of a dinner, telling the Jackson Club that 
this mythical Philippine commonwealth which we hear talked about, with its 
president and cabinet and congress, is in fact a scattered and helpless population 
unfit for self-government in any sense of the word. The same thread of con- 
tradiction seems to run through the magazines. Open the Xorth American Review. 
On the first page is Mr. Andrew Carnegie exalting the Philippine tribes to the 
opportunities and privileges of a new republic, exactly as my friend from Indiana 
has done this day, in words which have hardly fallen btlow ihe rhapsody with which 
the venerable ex-Secretary of State has welcomed the guileless Aguinaldo into the 
company of George Washington; while a few pages over we find Senator Vest, 
who has studied this question about as hard as my friend from Indiana has, even 
if he has not written down his views quite so fully, describing the people to 
whom my friend asks us to furnish, not canned freedom, but liberty on the half- 
shell — a license to do business on their own account — as a piratical and half- 
civilized mass of muck-running barbarians. 

"I have never yet heard an American, big or little, say tliat we ought to 
have given these islands back to Spain, that we ought to have committed them 
to the bloody hand of the despotism from which we have delivered them; but I 
do not hesitate to say, measuring my words, that such a disposition of them would 
be merciful and benevolent compared to the policy of recognizing the petty tribal 
chieftains who are now preparing lawlessness and confusion for the islands of the 
archipelago; for it is written in the common law that tyranny is to be preferred 
rather than anarchy, on the ground that any government in the world is better 
than no government at all. 

"I have never lieard anyone say that we ought to divide these islands among 
the nations of the world, though if the nations of the world would take them, the 
time will certainly come when we can do that, if we desire. I deny that we entered 



MR. DOLLREE OF IOWA FOE EXPANSION. 571 

upon tlio war iindt'i' leave of any foreign nation. I rejoice in tlie fact tliat the 
President of the United States, when the worhl was full of rumors about the 
intervention of the powers, told the ambassadors assembled that the American 
Government was about to handle the question for itself; and if the Government 
of Great Britain stood by" ready to temper the hostile motives of other powers, it is 
only a new bond of sympathy between us and the kindred people from whom we 
have derived our language, our literature, our laws, and onr institutions. 

"Not only do I deny that we went into the war by permission of foreign 
nations, but I deny that we came out of it by the consent of foreign nations. On 
the contrary, I assert before the House to-day that the achievements of the past 
year have put foreign nations on their guard and induced them, standing at a 
respectful distance, to recognize that the United States is able to take care of 
itself. We stand in the arena of the world's affairs dependent upon the counte- 
nance of no foreign power, but appreciative of the good will of all, with a prestige 
among the nations whieli we have never enjoyed before in our whole history since 
the foundations of civil liberty were laid on this continent by our fathers." 

Dolliver referred to General Wheeler, saying: 

"At the time of the attack upon Santiago he was sick and unable to leave 
his tent, but when he heard the firing he got into an ambulance and started for 
the front. When he met details of men carrying the wounded to the rear he told 
fhe boys to let the wounded ride and asked them to get him out of the ambu- 
lance and put him upon his horse; and all day long in the firing line at Santiago 
he kept the field, directing the movement of his troops. 

"I do not know how it seems to others, but it seems to me that that old 
Confederate General riding up and down the line at Santiago has become the 
type of a larger and better Americanism which has turned its back upon all the 
bitterness of the past and opened its eyes to the sublime destiny of a reunited 
country. I have not read the history of the world without perceiving that there 
is in it a Providence higher and wiser than our poor human guidance. I accept 
the philosophy which finds a Power in this universe which makes for righteous- 
ness; an Eye over all that neither slumbers nor sleeps, an Arm made bare to lift 
up the helpless and despairing children of men. Let us not doubt that amid 
the vicissitudes of the national life, even when we walk in the thick darkness, when 
the judgment of the wise is confounded and the foresight of the prudent made 
afraid, we e.xecute at last, in a poor, blind way, not the clumsy designs of men, 
but the inviolable will of God. To my mind it does not seem incredible that the 
Power which is over all the governments of men is about to take the great 



Mi;. DULLnEU UF lUWA FUK EXPAXSIOX. 



Eepiiblic, uuited and made stioug in the devotion and loyalty of all its people, and 
use it as an instrument in His hand to enlarge the boundaries of civilization, to 
extend the frontiers of freedom in far-ofE lands, and to garrison new outposts of 
social progress in the ends of the earth. And if that is our destiny and that our 
duty, I for one am in favor of looking the future in th^face and taking up that 
duty 'in the fear of God,' as old Bismarck used to say, 'and of nothing else.' " 







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CHAPTEE IX. 

HON. HENEY GIBSON FOE EXPANSION. 

I'orto Eico Is a Conquest; Are We to Clive It Up on Moral Grouncls? — There 
Wore C'roalcers About Our Having Any Pacific Coast — It ^^'as Six Months 
Away — "The Asliy Li})s of Cowards and Traitors" — There Would Be Objec- 
tions to Annexing Paradise — Do the Black Men Consent to Be Governed 
in All the States?— Why Say "Turkey" to the Yellow Heathen and 
"Buzzard" to the Black Christian?— When Did We Get the Consent of the 
Indians to Govern Them?— The Pilgrim Fathers Exterminated the Natives 
of Massachusetts — God Commanded the Killing of the Canaanites. 

Hon. Henry Gibson of Tennessee says: 

"Porto Eico is a beautiful, healthful, and fertile island, within the sphere 
of OUT influence and on the great waterway between the United States and South 
America. The inhabitants are anxious for annexation, and everywhere welcomed 
the arrival of our soldiers with shouts of joyous salutation. 

"It is said that we did not go to war for conquest, and we did not. But 
tecause we did not go to war shall we for that reason abandon Porto Eico? When 
we engaged in the war with Mexico in 1846 we did not go into it for conquest; 
■our purpose was to defend and jjrotect Texas. 

"But when that war ended we were in possession not only of Texas, but of 
Utah, California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. Now, what did we do? 
Did we say then that, as we did not go to war with Mexico for conquest we would 
abandon Utah, California, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico? No, we were not 
the imbeciles then some men want us to be now. We held on to what we con- 
quered from Mexico, and we are holding on to it to-day, although there were men 
then, as there are men now, who thought it was wicked and dangerous to acquire 
this territory, and some predicted that God's curse would fall upon us as a nation 
if we took this territory away from Mexico. 

"But we took it, and we took it by force of arms, and we hold it to-day, and 

God's curse has not yet fallen upon us. On the contrary. He seems to have blessed 

us. Oui nation took a new start when California became ours, and never in the 

liistory of the world has there been such progress in territorial development as 

there has been since we annexed California. What was then a wilderness between 

Missouri and the Pacific Ocean, inhabited by Indians, buffaloes, coyotes, and 

575 



576 HON. HENRY OIBSOX FOE EXrAX.SlUX. 

prairie dogs is now occupied liy thirteen States and three Territories of our Union, 
containing 8,000,000 inhabitants. 

"Man proposes, but God disposes. We did not go to war with Mexico to 
acquire any territory, but we did acquire some, and the territory thus acquired 
has rounded out our domain, and been not only a great blessing to us, but a 
blessing to all mankind. 

"So we did not go to war with Spain to acquire any territory. But again man 
proposes while God disposes, and as a result of this war the beautiful Island of 
Porto Eico is in our hands. And the question now is, Wliat shall we do with it? 
Shall we surrender it to Spain, that brutal and bloody tyrant whose rule has been 
the curse of so many lands? To luuil Porto Eico back to Spain would be like 
throwing a rescued and bleeding lamb back into the jaws of the wolf whose fangs 
had torn its flesh, and I for one will never vote that way. 

"They declared our Cons'titution a rope of sand. They said uur Presidents 
v,ould become kings, and thought they saw a crown growing on Washington's 
head. ^Mien Louisiana was annexed, in 1803, they said that it was so unconsti- 
t\ifional as to annihilate the Constitution and destroy the Union. Wlien the first 
juitional bank was chartered in 181G they declared that liberty was as good as 
dead, and that the money power would soon own the country. When, in 1845, 
Texas was annexed, they saw slavery triumphant and the Union as good as dis- 
solved. '\Mien, in 1846, we made war on Mexico in defense of Texas, men in 
this House declared that the vengeance of heaven was sure to fall upon us, and 
"bloody graves'' would be the fate of those gallant Americans who with transcend- 
ent valor ujdield our flag at Buena Tista, and who carried it in triumph from 
Vera Cruz to Mexico and floated it from the topmost turrets of the mansions of 
the Montezumas. 

'^Tien, in 1848, we annexed California and Xew Mexico, these same prophets 
of evil saw the most gigantic dangers looming up on the Pacific coast, 3,000 miles 
away, and a six months' journey by sea or land, and the result would be the nation 
would break in two by its own weight, the Rockv Mountains being the line of 
division, unless England or some other foreign nation took California and Oregon 
away from us by force of arms. Blood-curdling and hair-raising pictures of na- 
tional calamity were thrust before our horrified vision by the old women and 
false prophets of those days as the sure result of the annexation of California. 
It was declared to be a wicked robbery from a sister Eepublic, a robbery wholly 
unnecessary, as we already had more territory on the Pacific than we had any 
use for; that its ac({ui.<ition would necessitate a large increase of our army and 



IIOX. HEXRY GIBSOX FOR EXPANSION. 577 

navy, and a consequent increase of taxation, all of wliicli would fall on the poor 
man; that the $15,000,000 we paid Mexico for California was a reckless and uncon- 
stitutional expenditure for what, at best, was a mere unexplored waste of sand and 
sagebrush: and that the sole object of the annexation was the unholy extension 
of African slavery and the wicked suppression of American liberty. 

"If the gentlemen who are wrinkling their brows and torturing their brains in 
unsatisfactory efforts to manufacture insect thunder against the acquisition of 
Porto Eico and the Philippines will only go back to the Congressional debates on 
the acquisition of Louisiana in 1803, and the acquisition of Texas and California 
in 1845 to 1848, they will find not only all the little arguments their imagination 
has brewed out of a sour digestion, but will find many others of larger proportions 
and more ponderous material. But they will find all of these arguments, little 
and big, fully answered, all of their predictions falsified by subsequent history, and 
that, instead of adversity to curse us, we got prosperity to bless us; instead of 
slavery being extended it was destroyed; instead of California being six months 
off it is now only six days off, and the 1,000-mile-wide desert between California 
and Missouri is blossoming like the rose, the seat of religion, learning, and wealth, 
and filled with many populous and prosperous States. 

"I suppose there is a providence in allowing and stimulating these prophets of 
evil, the human ravens whose croaks are heard from the glittering spires of pros- 
perity and whose sable wings flit through all banquet halls, like fallen spirits, whose 
only satisfaction is to prophesy calamity and terrify the timid. 

"The fathers of our Repuldic, as they wrought on in their grand endeavor 
to lay deep, wide, and strong the foundations of a nation that should be to all 
others as the sun is to the stars, heard day after day the carpings of the critics, 
the sneers of the scorners, the censures of the wiseacres, and the prophecies of 
failure from the ashy lips of cowards and traitors. 

"If Bryan were President annexation and expansion and even 'imperialism' 
would be all right, and in the next campaign we would have a new and enlarged 
edition of that ancient and oft-repeated Democratic claim that all of the valuable 
additions to our national domain had been made under Democratic administra- 
tions, and we should again have heard how the Democratic party had 'enlarged 
the area' of freedom' and made another 'way for liberty.' 

"The majority does not mean the majority in any one State or section of the 
country, but the majority of all the people of all the States and all the sections. 
Here is where the Federal Government got its right to suppress the whisky rebel- 
lion while Washington was President, here is where Jackson got his right to sup- 



578 HOX. HENEY GIBSOX FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

press nullification in South Carolina, and here is where Lincoln got his authority 
for suppressing the Southern Confederacy. Washington, Jackson, and Lincoln 
were simply executing the mandate of the majority of all the people of all the 
States and of all the sections. And if Porto Rico and the Philippines are annexed 
to the I'nited States and become a part of the territory of the United States, they, 
too, will be governed by the majority, and if they are the majority they will govern 
us, but if we are the majority we will govern them. And on this commandment 
hang all' the law and politics of the case. 

"Xow, Mr. Chairman, are these men who deny the rights of yellow skins in 
America really anxious to defend the rights of yellow skins in Asia? Do the men 
who despise the negro in America truly love the Filipino in Asia? If the Filipinos 
were as numerous in the South as are the negroes, would these gentlemen who 
now champion their right to self-government be as loud-mouthed in their behalf 
as they are to-day? Do we not know, Mr. Chairman, that if the negroes were in 
the Philippines and the Filipinos were here these same advocates of self-government 
would be caressing the negroes and oppressing the Filipinos? 

"If Filipinos attack our army, if they attack our navy, we must teach them, 
as we teach all other people under God's skies, that that flag will never be assailed 
without defenders. Having smote down the lion of Sjjain fte will not submit to 
insolence or ingratitude on the part of its cubs. 

"My solution of the Philippine problem is this: If those fifty or sixty thousand- 
people out there who are claiming to represent 7,000,000 people get a little too 
fresh, I would squelch them; I would turn enough grapeshot and canister into 
their ranks to teach them that the American army and the American flag are 
not things to be trifled with, and that they who interfere with us do so at their 
peril. 

"But having suppressed these insurgents or having succeeded in causing them 
to subside, we will proceed to inaugurate a government there, a government as 
free and as much their government as they are capable of having. If they are 
capable of a perfectly free government, all the better; I will rejoice at it and will 
join my hurrahs with theirs. But until that day comes, until a stable government 
of their own can be maintained in the Philippine Islands — until that day dawns 
we owe it to mankind, we owe it to civilization, we owe it to Christianity, that the 
Stars and Stripes, the emblem at once of liberty and security, shall float there and 
float supreme. 

"Some one asks, 'What will you do with the Philippines? Will you admit 
them as States into the Union?' I answer quickly, Xever, as States, in our day. 



HOX. HENRY GIBSON FOR EXPANSION. 579 

We will hold tliem as Territories. We will do all we can to civilize and Chris- 
tianize them. We will establish schools and churches, construct roads, erect fac- 
tories, open mines, build telegraphs, all, of course, at their own expense, and 
give them just as much participation in their own government as they are capable 
of. And when, in the process of evolution, they become capable of self-govern- 
ment, we will give them national independence, with our blessing and good wishes. 
But, Mr. Chairman, let us do our duty in our day and leave the future to be taken 
care of by the men of the future. All wisdom and patriotism will not be buried 
in our graves. The great and good God, who has cared for our country in the 
past will raise up men in the future well able to deal with the Philippines in a 
manner suitable to our honor and welfare and compatible with the course of 
humanity. 

"Some men say, 'Of what benefit will these island be to us?' That question 
was asked when we annexed Louisiana; it was asked when we annexed Florida; 
it was asked when we annexed Texas; it was asked when we annexed California; it 
w'as asked when we annexed Alaska, and it will continue to be asked by the old fogies 
as long as human progress and national development continue. If Paradise could 
be annexed, there would be men who would object unless they could get a home- 
stead in it with the tree of life in the center. 

"Mr. Chairman, that we are a nation and that we have a nation's powers and 
a nation's rights, and intend to discharge a nation's responsibilities and a nation's 
duties; and lot the other nations of the world take notice that we demand a nation's 
respect. 

"The Indians to-day have no voice in the Government; and in the negro 
States their 'consent' is not only not obtained, but is actually denied. And what 
is most strange, the men who pretend to be so indignant about governing the 
Filipinos without their 'consent' are the very men who are- most anxious to 
govern the negroes without their 'consent!' Is an Asiatic Filipino who lives 10,000 
miles from here entitled to any more rights than an American negro who lives 
next door to us? ^liy is it, Mr. Chairman, that some of these men who rave 
so for fear the Filipinos will be governed without their consent rave just as 
furiously when the negroes insist on not being governed without their consent? 

"Wliy do these professed champions of liberty insist on saying 'turkey' to the 
Filipinos and 'buzzard' to the negroes? What is sauce for the Philippine goose 
ought to be sauce for the African gander. I can not C[uite understand the hearts 
of those men who so dearly love the yellow Filipino, whom they have never seen, 
and yet do not love the yellow negro, whom they have seen. If the Filipinos 



580 



IIOX. IlENKY CiliiSUX FUli EXPAASluX. 



are entitled to self-government, then the negroes are; and yet some of these men 
who are pretending to be so indignant because the savage, half-naked, heathen 
Filipino is to be governed without his consent are just as indignant when a civilized 
Christian negro asks not to be govurnud without his consent. Surely the charity 
of these lovers of the Filipinos does not begin at home. 

"As a matter of fact, Mr. Chairman, even in our own country government is not 
always based on the •'consent of the governed.' What father asks the 'consent' of 
his children to the government he establishes over them? When and in what is 
the 'consent' of the women of the country obtained, even where they are taxed? 
The 'consent' of the Indians has seldom been deemed necessary, and when necessary 
has often been obtained by fraud or force. 

"At every session of Congress laws are passed that some one or more States 
object to. At every session of the various State Legislatures laws are passed that 
some counties do not consent to. The consent of the majority rules, and they 
are the governors, while the consent of the governed minority is not only not 
asked, but when known is denied, and Sometimes denied with contemptuous 
tyranny and undeserved opprobrium. 

"In the days of nullification South Carolina was kept in the Cnion and forced 
to obey laws against her consent. Andrew Jackson threatened to hang some 
of the South Carolina nullifiers because they would not 'consent.' 

"From 1861 to 1865 we waged a terrible war against the Confederate States 
because they would not 'consent' to remain any longer in the old Union. And after 
the war we disfranchised them, so they would be unable to express their dissent. 

"We have had several Presidents who failed to get the 'consent' of a majority 
of the voters. There are several States in the Union to-day permanently governed 
by a minority of thdr people, and even in those States where majority rule prevails 
the minority are not only governed with their 'consent," btit are often governed 
in spite of their dissent. Even here in the city of Wa.-hington, right around 
and in sight of this Capitol, there are 300,000 intelligent, cultured, liberty-loving, 
patriotic people governed without their consent, without any voice, vote, or repre- 
sentation whatever, and taxed besides. 

"Wlien America was settled, was the 'consent" of the Indians asked by our 
forefathers? Did the Pilgrim Fathers obtain the consent of the Massachusetts 
Indians? No, sir; they exterminated them! 

"Wltere would the Ignited States of America be to-day if the first white men 
who landed on our coast had sailed away because the Indians objected to their 
coming? This fair and gracious land, the wonder of the world, with its 70,000,000 



IIOX. HEXRY GIBSON FOR EXPANSION. CSl 

of people, its lumdreds of beautiful towns and cities, its millions of fertile fields, 
its hundreds of thousands of schools and churches; its railroads, telegraphs, aud 
mail routes; its electrical inventions and manufacturing establishments; its mil- 
lions of happy. Christian homes; its government — the best on earth for man's 
welfare — where would all these have been had the 'consent' of the Indians been 
necessary to the occupation of the country? Instead of this magnificent Capitol 
there would be the wigwam of some Powhatan; and instead of these champions of 
the 'consent of the governed,' who from day to day make these walls weary of 
reverberation, we would have a few Indian bucks in war paint, with feathers on 
their heads and down their backs, and scalps in their belts! And thus the doctrine 
of the 'consent of the governed' would have been vindicated, even though a con- 
tinent was thereby made the home of heathen savages! 

" 'Consent of the governed,' indeed! The world has moved onward to civiliza- 
tion aud Christianity against the 'consent of the governed.' War is the great 
civilizer. God commanded Moses and Joshua to exterminate the Canaanites. 

"We have had our Jeremiahs all along the line, lamenting that the ruin 
ol our country was just at our doors unless their coimsel was observed, but we 
are not ruined yet. Instead of being ruined we have prospered, prospered more 
than any other nation that ever existed, and, what is strange, the more the 
prophecies of evil the greater our prosperity. And we are still moving on and 
moving up, conquering and to conquer. The stars in their courses have been fight- 
ing on our side, and Destiny has pronounced an irrevocable decree in our favor. 

" 'There are great truths that pitch their shining tents 
Outside our walls, and though but dimly seen 
In the gray dawn they will be manifest 
When the light widens into perfect day.' " ■ 




CHAPTER X. 

SENATOR HOAR AGAINST EXPANSION. 

This Is the Greatest Question Ever Discussed by the United States Senate — 
Almost the Greatest Since the Beginning of Mankind — Putting the Flag 
Up and Down — Wanted ^Messages Sent to the Phili])i)ines — What Are We 
to Do with 10,000,000 Souls?— Poor People Who Took Their Bows and 
Arrows — Aguinaldo's ^lasterpieces — Dr. John.«on on Taxation — Trampling 
on Foreign People — Filipinos in Arms for Liberty. 

Senator Hoar said that no man can justly charge him with a lack of faith 
in his countrymen or a lack of faith in the principles on which the republic was 
founded. He had in the fullest measure that which stands as the central figure 
in the mighty group which the apostle said is forever to abide — hope. He thanked 
God that as his eyes grow dim they look out on a fairer country, a better people, 
a brighter future. 

It was not his purpose, of course, to discuss the general considerations which 
affect any acquisition of sovereignty by the American people over the Philippine 
Islands which has been or may be proposed. 

He hoped not to weary by reiteration, but this was the greatest question,, 
this question of power and authority of our Constitution in this matter, ho had 
almost said, that had been discussed among mankind from the beginning of time. 
Certainly it is the greatest question ever discussed in the Senate from the beginning 
of the government. 

Mr. Hoar believed this country to be a nation — a sovereign nation. He be- 
lieved Congress possessed all the powers necessary to accomplish the great objects 
the framers of the Constitution intended should be accomplished; denied that it 
possessed the "astonishing"' and "extravagant" powers under the Constitution which 
Senators attributed to it. 

-'We have heard of limited monarchies, constitutional monarchies, despotisms 
tempered by assassination, 1)ut the logic of the Senator from Connecticut makes a 
pure, unlimited, untem]iered despotism without any relief from assassins. 

"In general the friends of what is called imperialism or expansion content 
themselves with declaring that the flag which is taken down every night and put 
up again every morning over the roof of this Senate chamber, whore it is in its 
rightful place, must never be taken down whore it has once floated, whether that 

583 



SENATOR HOAR AGAINST EXPANSION. ss.? 

be its rightful place or not — a doctrine which is not only without justification 
in international law, but if it were implanted there would make every war between 
civilized and powerful nations a war of extermination or a war of dishonor to one 
party or the other." 

Mr. Hoar dwelt upon the large increase in national e.xpenditure which the 
policy of expansion advocated would entail, placing the amount at $150,000,000 
annually. He argued that the adoption of expansion doctrine would reduce wages,, 
increase taxation, jilace an armed soldier on the back of the workingman, and 
by the act of the government every American's dignity would be dishonored 
and his manhood discrowned. 

"The Monroe doctrine is gone," he said. "Every European nation, every 
European alliance, has the right to acquire dominion in this hemisphere when we 
acquire it in the Orient. 

"I heard a good deal before the treaty was enacted, spoken with great earnest- 
ness and great vehemence, about embarrassing the administration in the war. 
It was said we cannot declare the old doctrine of the Farewell Address, or the 
old doctrine of the Declaration of Independence, or any limitations on our con- 
stitutional power, or any expression of oiir intent, because there are hostilities 
going on between the United States and the people of the Philippine Islands. 
Those hostilities are going on now, and what has become of the scruples of the 
majority in this chamber? They are prepared not only to send to the people of 
the Philippine Islands what two highly esteemed members of the Senate, in 
speeches which, I think, gave me more pain than any other speeches I ever listened 
to in the Senate, said they would not do — they would not send any message to 
the persons who had arms in their hands taken up against the United States. 
But here is a message, while those hostilities are still going on, calculated to pro- 
voke freemen, lovers of liberty, men who think as our ancestors thought, men who 
think as we have thought till within six months, to resistance and to hostility 
to the death. 

"They are simply resplntions, when properly analyzed, declaring in effect that 
these 10,000,000 people have in our judgment no constitutional rights, no rights 
to liberty, no rights even to be heard in the determination of their own self-govern- 
ment, and that they are not to have in the future any right of citizenship, any 
of the rights debated and somewhat misty, but still valuable and precious, which 
men have when they become residents on territory of the United States. They 
are not to be citizens here. They are not to be an integral part of our territory 
ever. Then it goes on to say, in substance, that they are to have nothing to do' 



584- SEXATOE HOAR AGAINST EXPANSION. 

about their own government hereafter. It is the intention of the United States 
to make a government for them 'suitable to the wants and conditions of the 
inhabitants of said islauds." Of that we are to judge, not thej'. That government 
is not to fit them to govern themselves ever in the great things which pertain to 
a national life. 

"The message which my honorable friend from Delaware will not send to 
the people with arms in their hands is a message of peace, of good will, of liberty. 
But he will send them this message from the Senate: Never shall you be made 
citizens; never shall your territory be United States territory: never shall you have 
the rights which dwellers on our territory enjoy; never shall you establish your 
government for yourself. We will try to fit you in small matters and in local 
matters for self-government; we will try to fit you to govern yourselves so far 
as the people of the District of Columbia used to govern themselves, perhaps, and 
so far as a Territory may govern itself, perhaps, but you shall never have a part 
or a share, not one of the ten millions of you, in your national self-government. 

"And then what is the United States going to do with 10,000,000 human 
souls? Make such disposition of them as will best promote not even their interests 
alone, but ours, 'as will best promote the interests of the citizens of the United 
States," which they are not, and as a caudal appendage, the interests of the inhab- 
itants of the islands. 

"Now, was there ever on the face of the earth more infamy, if what the 
people of the United States have said and lived and declared in the face of all 
mankind be true, than is to be contained in that declaration? It is a declaration 
stripped of everything else simply that the Louisiana sugar planter shall not be 
afraid of their competition in the future, and that to prevent that fear there shall 
never be a human, a constitutional, or a legal right recognized in those 10,000,000 
people; and that is the whole of it. 

"You cannot send a message of peace, j'ou cannot send a message of hope, 
you cannot send a message of pity, to those poor people who have taken their 
bows and arrows in their hands and thrown themselves against the power of the 
people of the United States, dashing out their lives in a brave battle for liberty. 
To send them even a message of pity the man who proposes it is denounced as a 
traitor and as unfaithful to the interests of his own country: but for a message 
of tyranny, a message of hate, a message of oppression, a message of slaughter, 
these gentlemen are ready enough. 

"I want to say a single word about these people and their chieftain. I agree 
that we have not full information about Aguinaldo. It may turn out in his case. 



SENATOR HOAE AGAIXST EXPANSION. 585 

as it has turned out in the case of so many others, that he is an unprincipled 
adventurer. We know nothing about that. All we know about him is that he 
was accepted as an ally, and that after everything that has been said to his dis- 
paragement happened, after his retreat, after his acceptance of the money of Spain, 
he was recalled in honor and in power by the Admiral and the General of the 
United States. We know that he had invested the Spaniards in the city of 
]\Ianila; we know that of those "2,000 islands he had won the independence of every 
one, .save only the city of Manila, and, perhaps, one or two other slight stations 
held by Sjiain. We know that there came from him a provisional government 
and constitution for a people engaged in a revolution for their own independence 
the like of which for ability and fitness for the situation for a people about to 
enter upon self-government as soon' as the military necessity had gone l>y there 
are not ten men on the face of this planet who could have improved upon. It is 
a masterpiece of constitutional construction. 

"We know that he has addressed to this Senate a powerful, temperate, and 
respectful communication, stating with admirable clearness and compactness a 
desire and a hope for liberty and an appeal to the great people of the United 
States. I do not see how any American heart not of stone can fail to see that 
the source of that appeal is entitled to respect and to honor. He has also made 
an application — rejected, I am told, though the details of that we do not know — 
simply for a hearing. 

"Suppose it were true that these 10,000,000 people seeking liberty, knowing 
nothing of a foreign power but what they have learned from Spain, 10,000 miles 
off from the United States, unacquainted with our history, their eyes never having 
gazed upon the beauty and the glory of our flag, suppose they did in their ignor- 
ance and in their weakness make this brave and passionate attack upon the forces 
of the United States, they were, at least, men willing to give their lites for some- 
thing. Whatever else they did, they did not flinch or run. We have mowed 
them down by the thousands; we have inflicted ujion them that dread and terrible 
])enalty; and I do not agree with my honorable friends who say that it is unworthy 
of the dignity of the people of the United States to send those people even a 
message of kindness and hope and sympathy. 

"I think the lives of American soldiers were sacrificed by the men, whoever 
did it, who demanded of these men their unconditional submission and would not 
send them a message such as America has been wont to send and such' as the 
American flag has been wont to bear to the down-trodden and suffering and 
oppressed peoples of the earth. 



580 SEXATUK llUAl! AG A I. \ ST EXPAXSION. 

"Others doubtless will do as they please. I have in regard to myself, in 
regard to what I have said and done and what I shall say and do in this business, 
neither doubt, hesitation, nor misgiving. I am satisfied to stand with the fathers 
and the statesmen of the ]iast generations, with the men who framed our libi-rty 
and who founded our ('cm.'^titution. 

"I hapjiened accidentally this morning, looking entirely for another subject, 
to find a passage from Dr. Johnson, in the great argument in which he assailed 
our revolutionary fathers, entitled 'Taxation no Tyranny.' If I were to have it 
read at the desk as a part of the speech of the gentlemen who have been defending 
this business here, everybody would say, '\niy, of course, that was exactly what 
they were saying; it sounds like last week and the week before last" — this doc- 
trine that there can be no limitation of sovereignty, that a sovereign can do any- 
thing he pleases, that you are inferior, that a constitutional republic or a limited 
monarchy is inferior to a despotism or a tyranny. I read a paragraph as follows: 

" 'All government is ultimately and essentially absolute, but subordinate socie- 
ties may have more immunities, or individuals greater liberty, as the operations 
of government are differently conducted. An English individual may Ijy the 
supreme authority be deprived of liberty for reasons of which that authority is 
the only judge. In sovereignty there are no gradations. There may be limited 
royalty, there may be limited consulships, but there can be no limited govern- 
ment. There must in every society be some power or other from which there is 
no apjieal, which admits no restrictions, which pervades the whole mass of the eoni- 
munitv, regulates and adjusts all subordination, enacts laws or repeals them, erects 
or annuls judicatures, extends or contracts privileges, exempt itself from question 
or control, and bounded only by ])hysical necessity.' 

"That is the doctrine on which this present policy of ours stands. Rut John 
Adams and George Washington and Patrick Henry bad something to say to the 
contrary. That pamphlet was published by Dr. Johnson in 1775 as 'An Answer 
to the Resolution and Address of the American Congress,' and the American 
Congress joined issue and they answered to the great moralist and philosopher, 
the tool and defender of absolute power, that governments get their powers from 
the consent of the governed, and that the only powers they get are just powers, 
and we claim for our newly constituted governments the right to do only those 
acts and things which free and independent States may of right do. 

"Trampling on foreign peoples or disposing of them for our interests was not 
one of those things. They declare that it is the right of any people to institute 
a new governnu'ut, and to not only 'organize its ]iowers in such form,' but 'to lay 



SENATOR IIOAE A(;AIXST KXPAXSION. 587 

its foundation in such principles as to them" — not to anybody else — ".shall seem 
most likely to effect their safety and happiness.' And they declare that these 
things lie at the foundation of all governments, and are of higher and prior 
authority than government itself. They put that not only into their own declara- 
tion, but into the cotemporary Constitution of every American State; and the 
people of Virginia added to it that these rights are 'the basis and foundation of 
government,' and 'that no free government or the blessings of liberty can be 
preserved to any people but by frequent recurrence to these fundamental prin- 
ciples.' 

"I wonder what sort of recurrence we are going to make to these principles this 
year? Can any man read them in the Senate without being denounced as a traitor? 
Can any Senator read George Washington's farewell address on his birthday with- 
m\t dropping his voice, or without a little laugh around the chamber when he 
repeats the counsel which for a hundred years we have followed? Will it not be a 
remarkable celebration of the Fourth of July if we have these 10,000,000 people 
all trampled under foot, and some of our friends cannot hear these great sentiments 
of the moral law as applied to the conduct of the States read again without saying, 
'01], tlift is a traitorous message you are sending to men who are in arms for their 
libcrtv in a distant land"?" 



-^^ j^ y-^^^ 



CHArTKK XI. 

SENATOR 31AS0X OrPOSKD TO EXPANSION. 

"We Are Attacking People Without Arms"-;— "How Is the War to Be Concluded 
Without the Extermination of Tliose Poor People?" — "We Refuse to Permit 
the Rebel Party Men to Speak to Us" — "By ^Miat Authority Was Iloilo 
Fired Upon?" — "I Say We JIade the Cause for AVar" — "We Shoot Them 
Down and Bum Their Buildings a la Weyler" — "How Long Shall Our Flag 
Remain Above an Unwilling People?" — The Whelp of a Lion and Cwsar's 
Ghost — England Never Guilty of More Cruelty — All Tyrants Charge Cutting 
Off Heads to the Lord — The" Whole Archipelago X'ot Worth One American 
Boy— We Have Tasted Blood. 

The Senator thought the Juggernaut car of the American forces would not 
go much further before the American people would be heard from. The Senator 
objected to our capture of Iloilo, and he said: 

"If we were conducting a war against Spain, Great Britain, Germany, or ai-j 
of the powers of the earth, I think I know my patriotic duty as well as do those 
gentlemen who have scolded me in the press and elsewhere. It would be the hour 
of the survival of the fittest, and I would stand by my country, right or wrong, 
ready to vote arms, munitions, or furnish whatever I had to give in defense of the 
preservation of my country. But here is a case where we are attacking people 
without arms, where we are making war against people who cannot defend them- 
selves, and who thirty days ago were our allies — a war that is iitterly unwarranted 
l)v any act of Congress. No declaration of war ha< been made by the war-making 
power, the Congress of the United States, against the people of the Philippine 
Islands. I ask any lawyer who claims to know international law whether, until 
the comjiletion of the treaty of peace, we secure even the naked title of sovereignty 
which Spain had? 

"It was claimed that upon the completion of the treaty of peace we should 
receive the title of sovereignty. I denied it. But now, for the purposes of the 
argument, suppose you have received the title of sovereignty which Spain had, 
you do not receive it until the comjilction of the treaty: and until the completion 
of the treaty of peace we have, under the protocol, only the right to keep Manila 
and its harbor. 

"How is this war to be closed except by the extermination of those poor 

people? Admit, if you like, that Aguinaldo is dishonest; admit, if you like, that 

588 



SEXATOK MASOX OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 58<> 

he sold his country I'or thirty pieces of silver — which 1 deny and wliich the record 
does not prove; admit all you please, yet within three days Aguinaldo asked for 
an opportunity to quit, and what is his answer? Take the official report, which was 
pul)lished ahout February 8, and which stands uncontradicted, and it shows that 
Aguinaldo, ready to quit, asked for a conference, and General Otis declined to 
recognize or answer the rebel chief. When is this war to stop, when we refuse 
even to permit the rebel party to speak to us? 

"The gentlemen who favored the treaty and urged it so strongly without 
any vote on the resolutions said in their speeches that when Spain ceded to us 
the Philippine Islands she ceded the sovereignty; that is, the right to govern. 

"Now, I am an American. I do not believe you can sell the right to govern 
anybody. I do not believe you can do in international law that w'hich is abso- 
lutely repugnant to and in conflict with the theory of the Government, but that we 
had a right, and for the purposes of the argument I said let that pass. It is only 
one of many questions, and for the purposes of the discussion which I am having 
•now I say I will admit that you bought the sovereignty of Spain, I say that I 
am willing to admit that it carries the right to govern, but I say that until the 
treaty is complete you have no right by the armies and navies of your country 
to take possession of land which has not been ceded to you. 

"I understand that now, to-day, the men who were rebels yesterday against 
the United States are rebels against Spain, and for legal necessity we must transfer 
their rebellion as against the sovereignty of Spain, in order that we may shoot 
them to death and still be within the line of constitutional and international law. 
Yesterday they were rebels against us, according to the statements, and to-day, in 
order to justify the burning of their villages, we have transferred the legal status, 
and they are now rebels against Spain and we are killing them because they are 
rel)els against Spain and have liroken the treaty. Such are the intricacies of inter- 
national law, if you will permi^t the expression. 

"Distinguished Senators who, upon this floor within one week, have declared 
them to be traitors and rebels against us are announcing a new doctrine this morn- 
ing — that the Filipinos are rebels against Spain or that they are legally the subjects 
of Spain, and as subjects of Spain have broken the treaty of peace. To such 
extremities are gentlemen driven. Men fighting for liberty never have put such 
a construction upon statutes. It is only that frame of mind which sets out upon 
a beaten path, having announced its intention of drifting away from the lines laid 
down by the fathers, drifting away from the lines laid down by the Republican. 
]iarty in its last convention. With their heads set, they say, 'If we do not kill 



oStO SEXATOR MASON OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

thtin, they will have anarchy there. If we do not l)urn their tojvns, they cannot 
govern themselves.' By what authority was Iloilo fired upon by our guns? Have 
we declared war in this war-making body? Oh, no. 

"3Ir. President, we are in war. We have shifted the scene of action from war 
against Spain to war against the insurgents, who never did us any harm. We 
are fighting to-day men with bows and arrows in their hands who six months 
ago were our allies. There is no lawyer upon this floor, from the distinguished 
chairman of the Committee on Foreign Relations, but who has admitted that they 
became our allies. Now, let us see whether some one has made a mistake; and 
if it is a mistake, it is a mistake of this Senate and of this country, and we are 
all equally to blame. It is our country. The Dred Scott decision was just as 
much the decision of Illinois as it was of South Carolina. Wliatever wrong a 
nation does rests upon us equally and alike. 

"At the close of this most holy war, when we gave notice to the world that 
we unlimbered our guns in the cause of humanity, before the treaty of peace was 
finally made, money considerations came in and indemnity was talked of, as 
thouj^h we had played the part of a good Samaritan at a price, at a per diem; 
and the moment money came into the peace treaty, that moment we descended 
from the high plane of liberty; that moment the trouble began. The moment 
the jingle of gold and silver was huard at your peace-treaty meeting in Paris, that 
moment the American people began to wonder and to revolt. 

"Let us see where we are, Mr. President. At the close of this war we had 
two great islands in our hands that I am to speak of, the islands known as the 
Philipi)ines and the Island of Cuba. One of the great questions that disturbed 
the American people was: What treatment shall the Philippine Islanders have? 
One class of people said: 'Let us jtursue the course of the fathers; let us give 
to them the same thing we gave to Cuba.' Another class of gentlemen said: 'Oh, 
no; they are ours. We have bought them; we have bought them from the King.' 
Do you know that you never can buy a better title than the grantor has? The 
title of a king, the right of a king to govern, sovereignty to be sold like chattels. 

"In one island, where we pursued the way of the fathers, there is peace; in 
the other island, where we have pursued the other way, there is war. Gentlemen 
say tlie Filipinos declared war. I say as a lawyer that the declaration and the 
casus belli came from us. I say that we made the cause for war; that they had 
some rights; that they presented their petition at our door; that they had a right 
to be heard; that they were our allies; and when they presented the petition here 
we kicked them out of the door. They crossed the water and at Paris they said 



SENATOR MASOX OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 591 

to the people there, 'You are parting our raiment; and, for God's sake, let us 
be heard for our people.' They were turned away there; and yesterday, when 
the rebel chief, as you call him, asked for the poor privilege of a conference, with- 
out knowing what request he had to make, you refused even to hear his voice, to 
hear his prayer, and you continue to burn his villages; and yet in this chamber 
we condemn the action of Weyler along the same lines! You do not have to 
shoot the first gun to declare war. You do not have to strike me to make me 
strike you. 

"Mr. President, some one has made a mistake. We promised to Cuba ulti- 
mate independence. Is not that the promise? Is it not so nominated in the bond? 
On the Island of Cuba to-day the people are a little restless, a little weary, yet they 
are getting ready every day, and every hour, and they say, 'God bless the Ameri- 
cano!' while in the same zone, as the Senator from South Carolina says, the same 
class of people, having the same language, practically the same religion, prac- 
tically the same sports, and of the same character, we have so conducted our busi- 
ness that their bows and arrows are aimed at us. 

"But I heard the distinguished Senator from Wisconsin, when he gave a lec- 
ture the other day to the Senators who disagreed with liim, declaim in loud voice 
against the Filipinos. You would have thought from his voice, his gesture, and 
from his language that the British lion had struck us a deadly blow. A few days 
ago gentlemen belittled the Filipinos and said they are mere children — they have 
not the mental or moral capacity to govern themselves; they are half man and 
half devil, half child and half brute — and yet those very distinguished gentlemen 
who so belittled them and put them on a lower plane are the gentlemen who boast 
the loudest of our bravery when we shoot them like dogs and burn their buildings 
a la Weyler! 

"It has been charged by many, and believed by many, that we were to discard 
the liberty cap; that we were to go into the business of buying sovereignty, and we 
became so heroic here in the Senate after Dewey's splendid victory that we were 
going to lay aside the American eagle as our mark of nationality and become the 
wlielp of the lion. I have had transmitted to me through some newspaper a sug- 
gestion as to wjiether we are to be the whelp of a lion. It is signed 'Caesar's Ghost.' 

" 'The purring mother, stretched at ease within her island lair. 
Throws high her tawny head and sniffs the blood smell on the air. 
Slow lifting to her feet she roars across the angry sea, 
I know thee now, my lion whelp, it can be none but thee! 



592 SENATOR MASON OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

" 'I feel no more thy milk teeth haggling at my stingy breast; 
1 joy to know thou ".st tasted meat, young lion of the West! 
Who said I bore an eagle that the jungle dark would shun, 
And soar to heaven with eyes that look unflinching at tlie sun? 



« < 



A lie! 1 know my growling cub, I know ihat glorious roar; 
I've roared it oft on Indian fields, from Afric's golden shore. 
He smacks his lusty lips, his eyes with blood-red fire arc light; 
His drooling jaws are sign of hunger and of prey in sight. 

" 'Beneath his paw I see a red man struggling to be free — 
That is our playful way, to tease with hope of liberty — 
Wliat majesty! What lion likeness in that shaggy crest! 
E"en I could not so tear that black man's heart from out his breast.. 

" 'We will hunt together, cub — ' 

"Here is the alliance that you are coming to, gentlemen — 

" 'We'll hunt together, cub, on every land, by every sea. 
And when we find a man not shirk responsibility. 
lion's whelp! I hoar thy roar across the roaring main — 
Thou art my cub, thou art the true (improved) imperial strain.' 

— Caesar's Ghost. 

"Mr. President, differing somewhat with the poet who signs his name as Cajsar's 
Ghost, I deny that we are to become the lion's whelp. I confess that we are acting 
a little bit like it; I confess that when these islands were within our hands we had 
not patience enough, statesmanship enough, generosity enough, to tender those peo- 
ple something that would bring peace. The roar did sound more like that of the 
whelp of a lion than the screech of the eagle that stands for true Americanism. 

'"We have imitated England in all of her past cruelty to her colonists. England 
never was guilty of more cruelty. We are not defending our laud now. Our dec- 
larations of war came when we sent our men there within the last few weeks, against 
the protest of the natives and withont giving them a hearing. You are not waiting 
in Manila. You are extending your lines and burning towns. The villages you 
burned yesterday were not mentioned in the protocol, and the treaty is not signed. 
The treaty is not complete. We are taking revenge upon these poor weak children 
of the forest. England in her jjalmy days was never more cruel. Let us imitate 
Gladstone for one minute upon the subject of retrocession; let us imitate England, 



SENATOE MASON OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 593 

as attention was called to her conduct by the distinguished Senator from South 
Carolina. The English flag was put over the Boers when they did not want it. I 
had hoped that the time would never come when the colors of our beloved country 
would go above an unwilling people. I had hoped that no living person would ever 
look into the sky and curse my flag; but you have put it to-day where 9,000,000 
people are cursing your flag, your institutions, and they do not know the difference 
between Spain and America, either by your protestations or by your conduct. 

'•My country, right or wrong, but let us right her. The power to right her is 
here. In the last days of Gladstone's life he spoke of 'false shame.' The English 
flag was over the Boer, and was taken down by the civilization and the Christian 
thought of England. Let the dudes imitate the English dudes, if they will. Let 
them imitate England as long as they will; bxit if you have to have a little English 
in your conduct, take the example of William E. Gladstone. Eead his last speech 
where he said the question is not who shall haul down the flag, but what is Just. 
That is what we are looking for. I am not afraid of 'false shame.' I have seen a 
real gentleman apologize to a bootblack for a thoughtless word, and I have seen a 
bully kick a bootblack half across the street. Let us get a little of the Gladstone 
idea — not who shall pull down the flag, but how long shall our flag remain above 
an unwilling people. 

" 'Oh, but,' they say, 'we put it over your people down South, and it was an 
umvilling flag.' Not so. The flag was there by contract. We simply fought to keep 
our flag where you had agreed it should be kept; and that difference is settled. We 
went into an agreement whereby the South was to stand by the North, the alliance 
being like a wedding that could not be divorced. We did not put the flag above 
an unwilling people. We kept it there after you had put it there yourselves. This 
is the first time in all the history of this beloved country of ours — this country which 
has attracted the admiration of the world — that the flag has ever floated over an 
alien who has cursed it. You love your flag and so do I. It is not an idle sentimen- 
tality. It means protection to my home; and the home of the Filipino is as sacred 
to him as yours is to you. The laws of nations, which I propose to discuss (and I 
sliall read from the lecture of the distinguished Senator from Minnesota), is based 
u])on Justice, upon humanity, upon right. I have been pleading for their homes. 
I shall continue to do so until this session adjourns. I have learned scTmething of 
the Republican-Democratic idea of home. 

"I remember to have talked with a man within a few weeks who said to a man 
who lived away up in the Northland, where they have night for six months, 'If you 
had .$.")00, what would you do?' 'Oh, I would go back to my old home and build a 



594 SEXATOE MASOX OPPOSED TO EXPANSION. 

house there.' There is six months darkness; it is cold and barren; but it is his 
liome. Some of you people on both sides of this chamber remember when at Yicks- 
burg our boys got so close to the Confederates that they talked l)ack and forth. 
Every man kept his head below the breastworks. Our band played Yankee Doodle 
and theirs played Dixie. We played the Star-Spangled Banner and they played the 
Connie Blue Flag. I believe one Irishman put his linger up, and got a shot in his 
wrist. He said to his captain that he was seeking a furlough, but got a discharge. 
Every man, when Dixie and the Bonnie Blue Flag and the Star-Spangled Banner 
were being played, kept out of danger, until one of the bands finally struck up 
Home, Sweet Home. Then the guns went into the trenches. Then the men stood 
upon the breastworks. 'Hurrah, Johnniel' 'Hurrah for home, Yank!" There was 
no danger with the music of home in the air. 

"llr. President, I have learned that every home made by human hands is a 
sacred thing. My country has proceeded, choosing the lines which best fitted and 
suited, along the line of empire, to take land without the consent of the inhabi- 
tants. No one denies that. They say we have a legal right. Oh, yes. But we 
knew, when we took the legal title, of the claim of those poor people. You are send- 
ing our boys over there, and the ships will be coming back loaded with their corpses. 
How many Senators have sons there now? How many Senatorial appointees have 
retired from the Commissary Department ? Are we any loss thoughtful of an Amer- 
ican boy because he is not ours? I am told Unit we will subdue the Filipinos, and 
that it will not cost us over three or four thousand lives. I tell you that the whole 
group, the whole archipelago, is not wortji the life of one American boy, trade and 
barter and dicker as you -will. 

"But distinguished and jiious gentlemen say, 'God put them in our hands; it 
is destiny.' The Lord! There was never a tyrant who cut off heads who did not 
charge it to the Lord. All crimes are laid at that door. We profess to be a Chris- 
tian nation and we have conducted our affairs with a weak, childish people in such 
a way that we are killing them hands down, and we say we must do it for their 
good. If you were honest about it, gentlemen, and could show me where you could 
steal something for your countr)', I could excuse it on the ground of high (?) states- 
manship, but there is not a dollar in it for your couptry or for your States. It is 
murder. Then you pull the cloak around you and go into high places and say, 
'Thank God, we are not as other men. We are Anglo-Saxons. We have worshiped 
at the throne of the Nazarcne ever since we were born.' But, as Caesar's ghost 
says, 'We have tasted blood.' " /■ Vjk^». j ^c^ 



CHAPTEE XII. 
EX-PEESIDEXT CLEVELAXD AXD OTIIEKS XOT FOR EXPAXSIOX. 

Mr. Cleveland Thinks the Best Statesmanship Should Adhere to Conscience in 
Storm as Well as Sunshine — He Suggests We Should Xot Kill People 'Who 
Would Lose Their Souls — Hon. Bourke Cochran Offers Objections to 
Expansion — Senator Money Takes a Favorahle View of Aguinaldo — Mr. 
Bland Thinks Expansion Means to Enslave Americans to Plutocracy — 
Senator Caflfery Says There Is Xo Opportunity for an Industrious White 
Man in the Philippines — Senator Tillman Quotes Kipling — Is Aguinaldo 
a Usurper Without Consulting Anybody? — Senator Turner on Grave State 
Reasons for Overriding the Opinion of Senator Foraker. 

Ex-President Cleveland gave expression to his views on Expansion in an un- 
common vein. He said: 

"I do not care to repeat my views concerning the prevailing epidemic of im- 
perialism and territorial expansion. Assuming, however, that my ideas on the sub- 
ject are antiquated and unsnited to these progressive days, it is a matter of surprise 
to me that the refusal of certain natives of our new possessions to acquiesce in the 
beneficence of subjecting themselves to our control and management should not in 
the least disturb our expansionists. This phase of the situation ought not to have 
been unanticipated, nor the interests naturally growing out of it overlooked. The 
remedy is obvious and simple — the misguided inhabitants of our annexed territory 
who prefer something different from the plan for their control which we propose, 
or who oppose our high designs in their behalf, should be slaughtered. The killing 
of natives has been the feature of expansion since the inception of the policy, and 
OUT imperialistic enthusiasm should not be checked by the prospective necessity of 
destroying a few thousand or a few hundred thousand Filipinos. This should only 
be regarded as one stage in the transcendentally great movement, a mere incident 
in its progress. Of course some unprepared souls would then be lost before we liad 
the opportunity of Christianizing them, but surely those of our countrymen who 
have done so much to encourage expansion could manage that difficulty. I saw it 
stated that ten million of cartridges are being manufactured in Birmingham, Eng- 
land, and that s]iecial metal is being used to prevent the shells from jamming in 
the gun barrels." 

'Mr. Cleveland wrote a letter of regret that he could not attend the celebration 
of the seventieth birthday of Carl Schurz that is held to be expressive of special 

595 



596 CLEVELAND AND OTHERS NOT FOK EXPAXSIUX. 

approval of the position of Mr. Schurz in op])osition to expansion, and that seems 
to be the reading between the lines, as follows: 

"Princeton, N. J., Feb. 18. — I regret exceedingly that I cannot promise my- 
self the pleasure of participating in the celebration of ilr. Schixrz' seventieth birth- 
day. I find that an engagement which I had hoped might be postponed will pre- 
vent my attendance. 

"My,disapi)ointment is measured by the extreme gratification it would afford 
me to contribute my testimony to the volume that will be presented on the occasion 
you have arranged in grateful support of Mr. Schurz' usefulness and patriotic citi- 
zouship. His life and career teach lessons that cannot be too often and loo im- 
pressively emphasized. They illustrate the grandeur of disinterested public service 
and the nobility of fearless advocacy of the things that are right and just and 
safe. 

"It will be a sad day for our country when, in the light of such an example, 
our people refuse to see the best statesmanship in steadfast adherence to conscience 
in storm as well as in sunshine. 

"I believe that the most confident hope of the permanency and continued 
beneficence of our free institutions rests upon the cultivation by those intrusted with 
public duty and among the ranks of our countrj'men of the traits which have dis- 
tinguished the man whom you propose to honor. 




THE HON. BOURKE COCHRAN NOT FOR EXPANSION. 

The Hon. Bourke Cochran said on the subject of expansion and imperialism 
that the event of a policy might be measured by its effect on the rate of wages paid 
to labor, for there was but one infallible test of prosperity in any country, and that 
is the condition of its producers. Therefore, when the effect of expansion on wages 
is discussed it is a discussion of its effect upon the general prosperity of the country. 
The speaker declared that in order to guard against confusion of terms it was neces- 
sary to distinguish between expansion, a word frequently occurring in the political 
literature of the country, and imperialism, a new expression. He defined expansion 
as the extension of our institutions througji tlie enlarscnient of our frontiers. He 



CLEVELAND AND OTHERS NOT FOR EXPANSION. 5!)7 

declared that imperialism is not the diffusion of American constitutionalism over 
new lands, but the establishment in conquered territory by this Government of 
another government, radically irreconcilable to the spirit of our own Constitution 
and essentially hostile to it. Expansion is the 25eaceful development of our political 
system by widening the area of its authority. Imperialism is the forceful exercise 
abroad by our Government of powers denied to it at home. 

Mr. Cochran cited the absorption of Louisiana, Florida, Texas and California 
as instances of expansion, in the American sense, that is the extension of our polit- 
ical system. He said that to seize the Philippine Islands by violence and govern 
them through military forces would be an act of imperialism inconsistent with the 
principles upon which this Republic is founded, and therefore dangerous, if not 
fatal, to its security. Then Mr. Cochran took up the broad question of expansion, 
saying that to extend the beneficent authority of this Republic over the whole North 
American Continent would be a marvelous l)enefit to the people of this continent, 
to the people of Great Britain and to the whole human race. He dwelt at length 
ujjon this proposition, showing how it would settle irritating questions like l)Oun- 
daries and stimulate production by increasing the free trade area. The orator 
pointed out that while these benefits would flow from expansion, they would not 
and could not flow from conquest, for the forcible annexation of Canada would be 
an act of imperialism as unprofitable as it would be unjustifiable and as calamitous 
as it would be criminal. lie added that if it could be accomplished by a single file 
of soldiers it would be none the less a policy of wickedness and folly. Forcible 
annexation would mean a subject population, discontented and therefore disloyal. 
Mr. Cochran said, and our authority could be maintained only by force — that is, 
by a standing army and a military rule, the republic that draws the sword against 
freedom in other lands will live to find the sword plunged into her own liberty. 

Then the evil with the standing army, which he said always had been and 
always will be fatal to free institutions, was taken up. He maintained that the 
question of the twentieth century would be one not of boundaries but of economics, 
and that every dollar expended for munitions of war is a sterile dollar. The soldier 
in iDarracks or field must be supported, because he is withdrawn from the field of 
industry. The laborer, therefore, must produce not merely the wages that support 
himself, but also the pay and sustenance of the soldier. Thus, argued Mr. Coch- 
ran, a standing army diminished the compensation which a laborer can earn, while 
it imposes upon him the burden of supporting another man besides himself. The 
degradation which the laborer suffers from a standing army was said to be far worse 
than the spoliation. Mr. Cochran showed how the Republic had changed the con- 



598 CLKVKLAM) AND OTIIEKS XOT FOR EXPANSION. 

dition of tlio laborer. He said we have grown to be the most powerful nation of 
earth tlirough the valor of citizen soldiers. The Government has rested secure upon 
its foundations in the consent of the governed. No force has been provoked except 
to vindicate justice. 

Then the claims of the imperialists were taken up, Mr. Cochran showing that 
trads does not follow the flag, instancing this country's relation with England, lie 
,=aid that England is right, despite her colonies, not through them, and if the prop- 
osition were true Spain would be the richest country on earth. But iier posses- 
sions have demoralized her government, and brought her to the abasement in which 
she lies to-day. Any system which entails a standing army cannot cheapen goods, 
but mu.'^t advance prices, because it restricts the volume of production by with- 
drawing the best laborers from the field of industry. During the last ten years 
English trade has languished. Yet it has been a period of extraordinary territorial 
aggrandizement. Mr. Cochran challenged the imperialists to show an instance 
in which trade has been promoted by conquest. The imperialist abandons the con- 
tintitm and says that while foreign possessions may be unprofitable, it is, neverthe- 
less, a duty im]K)sed iipcm us to take uji territory inhabited by weaker races, to civ- 
ilize and subject them to the authority of our office-holders. And if it is necotsary 
to shoot them as Kitchner shot the Dervishes in order to impose government upon 
them, he is willing to civilize them in that effective method. 



SENATOR MONEY NOT FOR EXPANSION. 

The Senator said in the Senate: 

"After Dewey's glm-ious victory in ^lanila Bay our Consul, corresponding with 
him, asked if Aguinaldo could be of any service. Aguinaldo, as you recollect, is a 
man who in some quarters has been described as a sort of blackguard insurgent and 
a traitor against the Ignited States. He never yet owed allegiance to us, and we 
have not had possession of his country. lie has been proclaimed from time to time 
an adventurer, a traitor, and a bandit, and insulted by other opprobrious epithets. 
Mr. President, the records submitted to us for our guidance and information in this 
matter, from which I presume our aide and efficient commissioners derived their 
information, show that this man has had a most honorable career, that he is a brave, 
(honest, sincere, and able man, and that with all his opportunities he is poor." 

Mr. JIason: "And that he never did sell his cause for monev?" 



CLEVELAND AXI) OTIIEES NOT FOE EXPANSION. 591) 

Mr. Money: "He never sold aiiytliing for money. There had Ijeen a hing and 
bloody struggle between Spain and her revolted subjects in the islands, both parties 
liad suffered and were weary of the struggle, and to secure peace a treaty 'or agree- 
jiient' was entered into. Spain agreed to correct abuses in the civil administration 
and introduce many reforms, and to pay a large sum of money for the widows and 
orphans of the insurgents who had fallen in battle. On their side the Tagals were 
to cease hostilities, and as a guarantee of tranquillity Aguinaldo and about fifty of 
his principal followers were to expatriate themselves. Four hundred thousand dol- 
lars was paid in cash to Aguinaldo, who, with his fellow exiles, went to Hongkong. 
No part of the balance of the stipulated sum was ever paid. One of Aguinaldo's 
officers sued for a division of the money. The dispute was settled by a payment out 
of court of $5,000 to the claimant. Aguinaldo was living modestly at Hongkong, 
declaring that the money was a trust fund and could not be put to a private use, 
and as the Spanish had failed to keep their promise of reform, it should be de- 
voted to the purposes of another rebellion, and it was expended in the purchase of 
the munitions of war. 

"It has been denied here that there was an insurrection there previous to the 
arrival of Dewey; yet this book, first submitted confidentially for our use and then 
made public by order of the Senate, shows that there was all the time no pacification 
there whatever, but insurrection unceasing; that in the months of January, Febru- 
ary, March and April the insurgents were in arms, and that they were within five 
miles of Manila; that there were daily battles; that the hospitals were continually 
filled with wounded; that the dead were brought in every day, and news came of 
one battle after another all over the island of Luzon, and that the Spanish garri- 
sons were besieged or had surrendered in many provinces. That is the testimony of 
our Consul at Manila, who was a witness of the things he spoke of and who is cor- 
roborated by many circumstances. 

"These people were under arms to do what? To acquire their liberty, to con- 
quer their liberty — these people, who had groaned for a hundred years under ex- 
actions and tyranny in comparison with which those which drove our forefathers 
into rebellion in 1T76 were trivial — these people, not discouraged by repeated fail- 
ures nor by bloody punishment, were making another effort, as they had been doing 
again and again for a hundred years. Then Aguinaldo was sent for, not to excite 
insurrection against Spain, but to control these forces already organized in rebellion 
in the interests of the American attack upon the Spanish forces in Manila and the 
islands of the Philippines. This is evidenced by the proclamation of the junta at 
Hongkong, by the proclamation of the junta at Singapore, by the correspondence 



<)00 CLKVELAXD AND OTHEES NOT FOR EXPANSION. 

of our Consul, Mr. Pratt, at Singapore, of ^Mr. Wiklman. at Hongkong, and of Mr. 
Williams, in the city of Manila. 

"AguinaldOj on his part, promised liiat lie would conduct the war with human- 
ity; that he would control tlie forces tliat were operating against the Spanish at 
that time around Manila, and he was only put on hoard ship at Singapore when 
■Commodore Dewey telegraphed, 'Send Aguinaldo at once.' He went to Hongkong 
and there he put himself into the hands of another American consul, Mr. Wiklman, 
who, in 'the secrecy of night, to prevent any interference, himself put Aguinaldo 
and seventeen of his officers on hoard the V. S. S. McCulloch and sent them to 
Manila. There he was put ashore and taken to the arsenal at Cavitc and was fur- 
nished hy the Americans with the arms which he required. 

"The chiefs who were carrying on this revolution throughout the different 
provinces rallied around him and made him tlieir leader. They came jiromptly in 
and gave their adhesion to him. Then the correspondence continued between Gen- 
eral i\.nderson, commanding the American forces, and General Aguinaldo, command- 
ing the insurrectionary forces of the Philippines. He was asked to give passes to our 
officers to go through his lines ami was requested to furnish us with tlie material 
of war. He did give us carts, bullocks, horses, firewood, and everj'thing else we 
demanded of him. In tlu-se communications he is called our ally; in others he is 
called our au.xiliary; but in every instance, unaware of the instruction of our State 
Department, he trusted to the open declarations of our civil and military officers 
that he was our ally and auxiliary. It makes no difference what our mental reser- 
vations were, Aguinaldo acted in good faith, and we are compelled to make those 
people understand that we are not to repudiate the understanding which we gave 
of our relation to them. 

" 'True hearts arc more than coronets, 
* And sinn>ie faith than Norman blood.'" 



JIR. BLAND OF MISSOURI NOT FOR EXPANSION. 

"We have been informed of a pressure on the jiart of Great Britain to induce 
this Government to maintain its authority over the Philippine Islands for the pur- 
pose of prosecuting further conquest in Chinese waters and over the Chinese Em- 
pire. That is the secret reason of this bill; and yet, Mr. Chairman, the people of 



CLEVELAND AND OTHERS NUT FOR EXPANSION. GUI 

the country are not so informed, cither l:y the President or tlie majority of this 
House. 

"The diplomacy of England has always been marvelous. Isolated as Great 
Britain is among the nations of Europe, with great colonial possessions in her 
charge, and yet greedily seeking to force her way into China in competition with all 
Europe, she finds that allies and friends are necessary to accomplish this ohject. 
She has sought by every means that diplomacy could devise to commit us to a policy 
that would bring about the necessity of co-operating with her in order to carry out 
her designs. If England can succeed in inducing the American Government to hold 
the Philippine Islands at the point of bayonets (and we can hold them in no other 
way), it is quite ai>parcnt that the friendship of England and har aid will be neces- 
sary to our success. 

"This is precisely what England wants. England wishes to place the United 
States in a position of dependency on her. We will then no longer be independent; 
will no longer have the position of absolute segregation from the broils of the Old 
World. Dependent upon England to hold Asiatic territory, we must of necessity 
aid her in her wars of conquest. It may be well to have the friendship of England; 
in fact, the friendship of all European countries; but it is far better not to need 
the friendship of any. The idea of a standing army of 100,000 men strikes the 
American people with horror. It forebodes plutocratic control l\y the use of the 
bayoHet; it looks to a strong centralized power with an army at its back to subdue 
the people into silence and to plutocratic methods. 

"A conservative estimate places the cost of each soldier in our army at $1,000 
per year in time of peace* At the lowest estimate that can be made with safety 
an army of 100,000 men will tax the people of this country $100,000,000 annually. 
If this army must be utilized in tlie sulijugation of the Philippine Islands, or to 
hold Porto Rico, the cost of transportation and ammunition and disease and death, 
resulting in pensions, w-ill, in all probability, tax the people of this country $150,- 
000,000 annually. We now pay out about $150,000,000 annually for pensions, 
which is charged to the military establishment, and to add to it another $150,000,- 
000 would make a sum total of $300,000,000 a year spent as the result of war and the 
prosecution of war, as contemplated in this bill. The overtaxed and inhumanly 
burdened people would cry against it. This army, however, will be used to repress 
the efforts of the people to throw off their burdens and bring about reforms. 

"I can not but regard it as a deep-laid scheme to enslave the American people 
under the present domination of plutocracy. English influence has been thus far 
successfully exerted in fi.xiiig upon our peoi)le the English gold standard. The 



602 CLEVELAND AND OTHERS MUT EUK EXPANSION. 

power of the Bank of flngland, the wealth of that country, over the banks and mon- 
eyed institutions of this country has brought to bear the combined power of the 
capitalists of England and America to control our financial system. The next move 
is to put our army and navy at the service of England in the prosecution of Asiatic? 
conquest, the end of which no man can see. We have no use whatever for the Phil- 
ippine Islands. To annex them is to practically abandon the Monroe Doctrine."' 



SENATOR CAFFERY NOT FOR EXPANSION. 

"We ought to know whether or not the sugar, the rice, the hemp, and other 
products coming from the islands can come in with a duty or without a duty. That 
is a very material consideration for the people of my State. Some of them down 
there seem to be under the impression that tire products of the islands can be taxed 
by the Congress of the L'nited States as if they did not belong to the domain of 
the United States. I believe that is a wrong impression. I believe that taxation 
must be uniform. I know there are judicial precedents holding that view, and I 
believe that the precedents are in exact conformity with the Constitution of the 
United States. 

"The Senator from Nevada says that there is no danger of competition from 
these islands; tliat the labor of the Tropics does not come to the temperate zone, 
and vice versa. That may be true, but if there is a condition of free trade existing 
between the I'nited States and the Philippine Islands, wkat is to prevent American 
capital from exploiting the resources of that country through Malay labor and 
bringing the product here to compete with .\merican labor? 

"Given the conditions of free trade, given the conditions of a stable govern- 
ment, given the conditions of American capital and American ability to organize, 
why not make the Tropics flourish? Why not develop the resources of the Tropics 
in the Philippines to their highest extent? They already export 250,000 tons of 
sugar. They exjmrt a vast ijuantity of inaiiila hemp, the best in the world. Lender 
the conditions that American enterjirise and capital and skill could create in those 
islands, all these products and many more to be developed would come in competi- 
tion with the products of American labor right here at home. 

"There is no opportunity there, as the Senator well remarks, for any hard- 
working, industrious white man to go to the Philippines. He can not stand the 
climate. If that were an uninhabited country in the temperate zone, notwithstand- 



CLEVELAND AND OTHEES NOT FOR EXPANSION. C(i3 

ing it is 7,000 miles away from our coast, if it could afford a place where the Amer- 
ican workman, the American yeoman conld settle and better his fortimes, it would 
not be a great evil; but as it is 7,000 miles from our coast, inhabited by a people 
who perhaps will, at least to a small extent, come here while certain it is that our 
people can not go there except as capitalists and exploiters." 



SENATOR TILLMAN AGAINST EXPANSION. 

The Senator said: 

"There appeared in one of our magazines a poem by Rudyard Kipling, the 
greatest poet of England at this time. This poem, unique, and in some places too 
deep for me, is a prophecy. I do not imagine that in the history of human events 
any poet has ever felt inspired so clearly to portray our danger and our duty. It is 
called 'The White Man's Burden.' With the permission of Senators I will read a 
stanza, and I beg Senators to listen to it, for it is well worth their attention. This 
man has lived in the Indies. In fact, he is a citizen of the world, and has been all 
over it, and knows whereof he speaks: 

"•'Take up the White Man's burden- 
Send forth the best ye breed — 

Go, bind your sons to exile, 
To serve your captives' need; 

To wait, in heavy harness. 
On lluttered folk and wild — 

Your uew-eaught sullen peo])les. 
Half devil and half child.' 

"I will pause here. I intend to read more, but I wish to call attention to a fact 
which may have escaped the attention of Senators thus far, that with five exceptions 
every man in this chamber who has had to do with the colored race in this coiuitry 
voted against the ratification of the treaty. It was not because we are Democrats, 
but because we understand and realize what it is to have two races side by side that 
can not mix or mingle without deterioration and injury to both and the ultimate 
destruction of the civilization of the higher. We of the South have borne this 
white man's burden of a colored race in our midst since their emancipation and 
before. 



C.Oi CLEVELAND AND OTHEKS NOT FOR EXPANSIOX. 

"It was a Inirden upon our manhood and onr ideas of liberty before they were 
emancipated. It is still a burden, although they have been granted the franchise. 
It clings to us like the shirt of Nessus, and \\c are not responsible, because we inher- 
ited it, and your fathers, as well as ours, are responsible for the presence amongst 
us of that people. Why do we as a people want to incorporate into our citizenship 
ten millions more of different or of diiiering races, three or four of them? 

"But we have not incorporated tliem yet, and let us see what this English poet 
has to say al)out it, and what he thinks: 

" 'Take up the White Man's burden — 

No iron rule of kings, 
But toil of serf and sweeper — 

The tale of common things. 
The ports ye shall not enter, 

The roads ye shall not tread, 
Go, make them with your living 

And mark tlunu witli vour dead.'" 



SEXATOl? TUKXEK AGAINST EXPANSIOX. 

The Senator said Senator Foraker, wliile asserting the power of the Govern- 
ment, in the broadest terms, to acquire dominion over other peoples in any manner 
known to the law of nations, and for any purpose, and to govern them without re- 
spect to the Constitution, says that the resolutions pfresented by the senior Senator 
from 5Iis.souri present a moot cjucstion and are unimportant, because no person in 
the administration, from the President down, has the remotest idea of denying to the 
Filipinos the utmost liberty and independence in forming their government. 

It was noted extensively in the press of the country, while our commissioners 
were in Paris, that they were in daily touch with the President, and were acting 
wholly and entirely under his guidance and direction. I find in the treaty, nego- 
tiated by our commissioners under this direction of the President, evidence of such 
a character that it must override tlie o])inion of tlie distinguished Senator irom Ohio. 
I find in that solemn instrument not only a cession to us by Spain of sovereignty 
over the Philippines, but an acceptance by us of that sovereignty, the language 
with respect to the Philippines differing so radically from that employed with refer- 
ence to Cuba as to preclude the idea that it was intended to treat both countries, 
alike. 



CLEVELAND AND OTHERS NOT FOR EXPANSION. G05 

It is true that the Senator asserts that there were grave state reasons for the 
difference in phraseology employed with respect to the two countries, which can 
be stated with propriety only behind closed doors. But to the plain, average Amer- 
ican citizen it is difficult to see why we may not protect the Filipinos in the pursuit 
of life, liberty and happiness while forming their government, and afterwards, for 
the matter of that, as well as we may protect the people of Cuba. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 

PEOMOTIOX AXD ADVOCACY OF EXPAXSIOX. 

Ex-President Harrison's Policy of Territorial Permanency and ilessage on the 
Annexation oi' Hawaii — Senator Lodge iSays We Sueceeded to the Sov- 
ereignty of Spain in Manila, and Philippine Patriots Have Xever Been 
Oppressed by Any Ameriean Act — Senator Stewart Says Filipinos Can 
Xever Come Here to Interfere with Labor — Senator Piatt of Connecticut 
Says the Doctrine of Senator Hoar Would Have Prevented Our Possession 
of the Pacific Coast States — General Grosvenor Vindicates General Otis — 
Senator Piatt of Xew York Says We Are Xot Forcing Our Government 
r]ion an Unwilling People — Senator Foraker Says Opposition Senators 
Talk About Theory — Mr. Brosius of Pennsylvania Quotes a Pearl of Poetry 
— Governor Oglesby Expands — Two of Kipling's Poems Much Quoted in 
Congress. 

EX-PRESIDEXT HAREISOX PEOMOTES EXPAXSION. 

In his exceedingly instructive book, "This Country of Ours," p. 277, Ex- 
President Harrison makes way in principle for territorial expansion. Speaking of 
the admission of territories into the L^nion, he says: 

"Out of this habit of dealing with the public dnniain has come the common 
thought that all territory that we acquire must, wjien sufficiently populous, be 
erected into States. But why may we not take account of the quality of the people 
as well as of their numbers, if future acquisitions should make it proper to do so? 
A territorial form of government is not so inadequate that it might not serve 
for an indefinite time." 

In his message to the Senate on the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands 
President Harrison said: 
"To the Senate: 

"I transmit herewith, with a view to its ratification, a treaty of annexation 

concluded on the 14th day of February, 1893, between John W. Foster, Secretary 

of State, who was duly empowered to act in that behalf on the part of the United 

States, and Lorrin A. Thurston, ^Y. R. Castle, W. C. Wilder, C. L. Carter, and 

Joseph Marsden, the commissioners on the part of the Government of the Hawaiian 

Islands. The provisional treaty, it will be observed, does not attempt to deal in 

detail with the questions that grow out of the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands 

to the United States. The commissioners representing the Hawaiian Government 

606 



PROMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 607 

liave consented to leave to the future and to the just and benevolent purposes of 
the United States the adjustment of all such questions. 

"I do not deem it necessary to discuss at any length the conditions which 
have resulted in this 'decisive action. It has been the policy of the adminis- 
tration not only to respect, but to encourage the continuance of an independent 
government in the Hawaiian Islands so long as it afforded suitable guaranties for 
the protection of life and property, and maintained a stability and strength that 
gave adequate security against the domination of any other power. The moral 
support of this Government has continually manifested itself in the most friendly 
diplomatic relations and in many acts of courtesy to the Hawaiian rulers. 

"The overthrow of the monarchy was not in any way promoted by this Gov- 
ernment, but had its origin in what seems to have been a reactionary and revo- 
lutionary policy on the part of Queen Liliuokalani which put in serious peril not 
only the large and preponderating interests of the United States in the islands, 
but all foreign interests, and indeed the decent administration of civil affairs and 
the peace of the islands. It is quite evident that the monarchy had become effete 
and the Queen's government so weak and inadequate as to be the prey of designing 
and nn.scrupulous persons. Thg restoration of Queen Liliuokalani to her throne is 
amdcsiraljle, if not impossible, and unless actively supported bv the United States 
would be accompanied by serious disaster and the disorganization of all business 
interests. The influence and interest of the United States in the islands must be 
increased and not diminished. 

"Only two courses are now open — one the establishment of a protectorate by 
the United States, and the other annexation full and complete. I think the latter 
course, which has been adopted in the treaty, will be Iiighly promotive of the 
hest interests of the Hawaiian people, and is the only one that will adequately 
secure the interests of the United States. These interests are not wholly selfish. 
It is essential that none of the other great powers shall secure these islands. Such 
a possession would not consist with our safety and with the peace of the world. 
This view of the situation is so apparent and conclusive that no protest has been 
Iieard from any government against proceedings looking to annexation. Every 
foreign representative at Honolulu promptly acknowledged the Provisional Gov- 
ernment, and I think there is a general concurrence in the opinion that the deposed 
Queen ought not to be restored. 

"Promjit action upon this treaty is very desiralile. If it meets the approval 
of the Senate, peace and good order will be secured in the islands under existing 
laws until such time as Congress can provide by legislation a permanent form of 



608 PEOMOTIOX AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 

government for the islands. This legislation should be, and I do not doubt will 
be, not only just to the natives and all other residents and citizens of the islands, 
but should be tharacturizod by great liberality and a high regard to the rights of 
all people and of all foreigners domiciled there. The correspondence which 
accomjianies the treaty will jjiit the Senate in possession of all the facts known 
to the Executive. 




"Executive Mansion, 

"Washington, Fchruarv 15. 1893." 



SENATOK l.oDcn-: FOH EXPANSION. 

The junior Senator from ^lassachusctts says: 

'•There was an insurrection in the Philippines under the lead of Aguinaldo. 
The insurrection was dealt with ruthlessly by the Spaniards and was substantially 
put down. They made an agreement with Aguinaldo and the other chiefs by which 
on the payment of a certain sum of money and the establishment of certain reforms 
the chiefs were to withdraw and the insurrection come to an end. In a perfectly 
characteristic manner, in fact just as they behaved in Cuba in 1878, after the chiefs 
had yielded and the insurrection was .substantially over, the Spaniards failed to 
make the reforms and paid only half the money. With that money Aguinaldo and 
his chiefs retired to Hongkong, and, although there was guerrilla warfare here and 
there in the outlying districts, the insurgent Filipinos were absolutely at the mercy 
of the Spaniards and the Spanish authority was complete as it always had been 
over those islands. There was no other sovereignty there. There was no belligerent 
there. 

"Aguinaldo was brought to the islands on the 19th of May in the steamer Nan- 
shaw, under American auspices. There was at that time no organized Filipino force. 
At*first the results of his appeal were so discouraging that he was disinclined to con- 
tinue. Eut he did remain, on representations of support made by our commanders. 
Then the Filipinos began to come in. They found a very great difference between 
the situation when they had last faced it and the situation after Admiral Dewey's 
destruction of the Spanish fleet. So long as there were Spanish ships of war in 



PKOMOTION AND AD\'OCACY OF EXPANSION. 



609 



Manila Bay it was aljsolutely hopeless for the insurgents to think for one moment 
of besieging the city or of making any effective attack upon the capital which was 
the center of the whole Philippine system. But with the Spanish fleet destroyed, 
with the bay in the hands of the American fleet, they were enabled to draw their 
forces gradually about the city, and they did so. When Aguinaldo first came into 
connection with our consuls he said to them that his desire was for anne;xation to 
the United States and for freedom from the Spanish rule. After he had got over 
again to Luzon and found how much the situation had changed, he gradually began 
to increase his ideas of his own importance. He had never adjusted his own rela- 
tions to the universe, and they remain unadjusted, I think, at the present time. 

"But the essential point I desire to make is simply this: The insurgent force, 
as an effective force, and the insurgent rebellion, as an effective rebellion, existed 
solely because of the victory of Admiral Dewey, and the Admiral, as you may see 
liy reading his dispatches, said to our Government, 'I have l)een extremely careful 
in all my dealings with these people. I have never made them the allies of the 
United States. I have never recognized them. I have simply aided them because 
they were fighting the common foe.' Admiral Dewey can be trusted, I think, to 
manage a matter of that sort without committing the United States to any position 
to which it should not be committed. 

"Now, to-day we are there in the city of Manila rightfully by all the laws of 
war and by all international law. We hold it, as we have a right to hold it, under 
the agreement with Spain. There was no sovereignty there whatever except the 
sovereignty of Spain, and we succeeded to that sovereignty in the city of Manila and 
its suburbs. There has never been an act of oppression against the Filipinos by 
any American soldier or by the American forces of any kind in the Philippine Is- 
lands. Those patriots have never been oppressed by any American in the active ser- 
vice of the country, or by any Anierican act. Their oppression exists solely in 
speeches in the United States Senate. They have been treated with the utmost 
consideration and the utmost kindness, and, after the fashion of Orientals, they 
have mistaken kindness for timidity."' 



^c/4 




610 PKOMOTIOX AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 

SENATOR PLATT OF CONNECTICUT FOR EXPANSION. 

Mr. Piatt said of Senator Hoar: 

"lie holds me up here as opposed to applying to the people of this acquired 
territory the principles of legislation in accordance with the spirit of the Declaration 
of Independence and of the Constitution. The United States never have legislated 
in opposition to the Declaration of Independence and to the Constitution, and it 
never will. I want to say that an application of the doctrines of the Senator from 
Massachusetts would have prevented our expansion westward across this continent 
to the Pacific coast. We found here this continent in the hands of the Indians, 
who did not want us here, nor did they want to be placed under our government. 
Notwithstanding that condition, we established our government here, and now, at 
last, we have brought many Indians to a state of civilization and citizenship. 

"We propose to proclaim liberty and justice and human rights in the Philip- 
pines or wherever else the flag of this country shall be planted. Who will haul 
those principles down?"' 



SENATOR STEWART FOR EXPANSION. 

Senator Stewart of Nevada says of the labor question in our new possessions: 

"I have heard it suggested here tliat the Filipinos would interfere with our 
labor system. It seems to me that impression is founded in profound ignorance or 
want of investigation. There never has been in the history of the woi'ld emigration 
of laborers from the tropical to the temperate zone. I have heard the Chinese 
alluded to as if they had done it. That is not true. The Chinese who have come 
to this country come from a climate entirely similar to ours. You never see any 
of the Formosans, or southern Chinese, who live in a tropical climate, coming here. 

"Such a thing never hap]iened, and it never will. They do not go from India 
to England, niir from the tropical portions of Africa to England, although they 
are under the English Government. A case can not be cited where the inhabitants 
of the Tropics have gone to a temperate zone to labor, and they are not coming here 
to labor. The difficulty is they do not labor enough at home. It has frequently 
happened that men have gone from temperate to tropical zones to labor, but not 
with great success; they do not stay there long. So the labor question is eliminated 
by nature. 

"Then, again, if we have these islands with their tropical productions, which 



PEOMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 01 J 

are our main imports, we shall have the balance of trade in our favor. Heretofore 
it has been against us, owing to the importations of tropical products, such as 
sugar, coffee and tobacco. The balance of trade against us of two or three hundred 
million dollars a year, perhaps, has come from these tropical productions. I do not 
propose at tliis time to go into details. These products come from that source 
where we can he supplied, and if we are supplied by a part of our own country, we 
should not have to pay the money out to foreigners. 

''Besides that so far from being against American labor, it would be greatly in 
favor of American labor, for we would manufacture everything that those people 
require. Manufacturing is always done in the temperate zone, always has been, and 
always will be, and it will not be done elsewhere. AYe would have the exclusive 
trade, and we should have an enormous trade in supplying them with our produc- 
tions and our manufactures. The American people, in view of these facts, may 
come to the conclusion that we want to keep all the islands when that qiiestion is 
open to consideration. It seems premature to preclude ourselves as to the question 
by any resolution when no action is required. Let us wait until action is required, 
and then act in view of the condition of things that may then be developed and 
understood." 



GENERAL GROSVENOR FOR EXPANSION. 

General Grosvenor quotes the proclamation by authority of the President of 
the United States, at Manila, January 4th, by General E. S. Otis, Military Governor, 
saying that his instructions direct him to publish and proclaim to the inhabitants 
of these islands that in the war against Spain the United States forces came here 
to destroy the power of that nation and to give the blessings of peace and individual 
freedom to the Philippine people; that we are here as friends of the Filipinos, to 
protect them in their homes, their employments, their individual and religious lib- 
erty; and that all persons who, either by active aid or honest endeavor, co-operate 
with the Government of the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes 
will receive the reward of its support and protection. 

The President concluded his instructions in this language: 
"It should be the earnest and paramount aim of the administration to win 
the confidence, respect and affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines by insur- 
ing to them, in every possible way, the full measure of individual rights and liberty 
which is the heritage of a free people, and by proving to them that the mission of 



(:12 PROMOTIOX AXD ADVOCACY OF KXPAXSIOX. 

the Tnited States is one of beneficent assimilation, which will substitute the mild 
sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule. In the fulfillment of this high mission, 
while upholding the temporary administration of affairs for the greatest good of the 
governed, there will be sedulously maintained the strong arm of authority to re- 
press disturbance, and to overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of 
good and stable government upon the people of the Philipjiine Islands." 

General Otis added: 

"It is also my belief that it is the intention of the United States Government 
to draw from the Philippine people so mucli of the military force of the islands as 
is possible and consistent with a free and well-constituted government of the coun- 
try, and it is my desire to inaugurate a policy of that character. 

"1 am also convinced that it is the intention of the United States Government 
to seek the establishment of a most liberal government for the islands, in which the 
people themselves shall have as full representation as the maintenance of order and 
law will permit, and which shall be susceptible of development on lines of increased 
representation and the bestowal of increased powers into a government as free and 
independent as is enjoyed by the most favored provinces of the world. 

"It will be my constant endeavor to co-operate with the Philippine people, 
seeking the good of the country, and I invite their full confidence and aid." 

It was this that wounded the feelings of the sensitive Aguinaldo and caused 
him to make war. 

General Grosvenor also cjuoted tlie President's letter to the Secretary of State, 
to commissioners sent to ilanial, Schusninii, Dewey, Otis, Worcester and Derby, 
saying: 

"The commissioners were enjoined to announce their presence and the mission 
entrusted to them and to consider what amelioration in the condition of the inliab- 
itants was practicable. The President's instructions, the orders of General Otis, all 
official language on the part of the United Slates, .was most pacific, and Aguinaldo's 
agony of wrath rose because the Americans did not submit to his dictatorship, which 
was impossible under the articles of capitulation of the Spanish army, held as pris- 
oners of war.'" 



SENATOR PLATT OF XEW YORK FOR EXPANSIOX. 

The Senator says the talk about forcing our government upon an unwilling 
people, all the eloquent invocation of the spirit of the Declaration of Independence, 
is far and away from any real point that concerns the Senate in this discussion. 



PROMOTION AXD ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. Gi;? 

There are reasons why the natives of those islands, after their experience with Span- 
ish misrule, should misunderstand the presence at Manila of an American army, 
but there is no reason why an American Senator should misunderstand it and no 
justification of his course in misrepresenting it. He knows that there is no Amer- 
ican in all this broad~land who wishes any other fate to any single native of the 
Philippine Islands than his free enjoyment of a prosperous life. He knows that 
close in the wake of American rule there would come to the Filipinos a liberty 
that they have never known and a far greater liberty than they could ever have 
under the arrogant rule of a native dictator. He knows, moreover, that it would 
be self-rule, the rule of the islanders to the full extent of their capacity in that 
direction, and that each successive American President would welcome the time 
when he could recommend new leases of self-government to an advancing and im- 
proving people. 

The Filipinos may not know these things yet, but every American Senator 
knows them and puts himself and his country in a false position when, by attrib- 
uting the spirit of conquest and aggression to those whose policy has rescued the Fil- 
ipinos from Spain and would now rescue them from native tyrants, he encourages 
them to doubt the generous sentiment of our people. 



SENATOE FOEAKER FOR EXPANSION. 

The Senator declared the right of the Government to establish a colonial sys- 
tem had never been before called in question. He asserted that at the time of the 
Louisiana purchase grave doubts were entertained by the distinguished statesmen 
of that era as to the (?onstitutional power of Congress to confer statehood upon the 
new possessions. It was generally conceded, he said, that they could be held as 
dependencies and governed at the pleasure of Congress. 

He further declared that in every instance where the United States acquired 
territory the Constitution of the United States was extended over it and that all 
legislation provided by Congress for such acquired territory must and always is dis- 
tinctly in accordance with the Constitution. 

The Senator maintained that the Government of the United States had ample 
power to acquire territory by treaty, and he demanded to know of Mr. Hoar if he did 
not think territory so acquired was acquired constitutionally. 

"The trouble," continued the Senator, "is that Senators are talking about a 
theory instead of a practical condition. What have the Senators who have dis- 



nl4 PEOMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 

eussed these theories proposed? Nothing. You all know the precedents of the 
condition we face. We had made war and its fortunes had carried us to the Philip- 
pines. When the end came those islands were in our possession. What was to be 
done? Four possibilities existed. We might return the islands to Spain, allow 
some other country to seize or gobble them up, the people of the islands might be 
left to themselves and the anarchy that existed there or we ourselves might take 
possession of them. The unanimous voice of the country was opposed to the return 
of the islands to the tyrannical government of Spain. 

"The return of the islands to Spain was, therefore, not to be considered. 
Were they then to be left to themselves? About the time this question was con- 
fronting us I saw repeated newspaper statements from Aguinaldo and his asso- 
ciates among the insurgents to the effect that all the countries of Europe would be 
on their backs before breakfast if the United States deserted them at that juncture. 
We could not leave the islands at the mercy of other countries. Such a course would 
have been cruel. We could not desert the people of the islands, and subject them to 
the risks of disorder, anarchy, misrule and mob rule while they might be still unfit 
for self-government. But occupation was not to be permanent. 

"I do not understand that anyone desires anything but the ultimate independ- 
ence of the people of the Philippines," said he emphatically, "neither the President 
nor any one in this chamber." 

"But what about our right it we chose to hold them permanently, with no 
thought of their ultimate independence?"' inquired Mr. Hoar. 

"We have an unquestioned right to do so," was the reply. 

"It had been asserted here in debate, as I understood, that it was the purpose 
of the administration and the purpose of those supporting the administration to 
take those islands and hold and govern them as a colony by force of arms forever in 
violation of the declaration of that resolution. That is what I was speaking to, and 
the language I employed should lie interpreted in the light of the resolution which 
I was discussing. 

"I did not say anything about anybody's present purpose except only as that 
might be inferred from the statement I made that I knew nobody had the partic- 
ular purpose in mind which had been ascribed to the administration by those who 
had spoken in favor of the resolution. 

"What I said was in reply to interruptions and questions, repeated questions, 
and there is, therefore, a good deal of repetition in my remarks, but the spirit in 
which I spoke will a]ipear from the following. In answer to the Senator from Mas- 
sachusetts (Mr. Hoar), I said: 



PROMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 615 

" "1 do not understand anybody to be proposing to take the Philippine Islands 
with (lie idea and view of permanently holdini; them and denying to the people there 
tlie right to have a government of their own if they are capable of it and want to 
establish it. I do not iinderstand that anybody wants to do that. I have not heard 
of anybody who wants to do that. The President of the United States does not, I 
know, and no Senator in this chamber has made any such statement.' 

"When I spoke of what I knew of the mind of the President of the United 
States in that particular, I was speaking simply of his public declarations and of his 
official acts as well, all of which were in contradiction of the idea that by sword and 
bayonet and shot and shell he meant to hold those islands without regard to the 
conditions that might exist there and without regard to whether or not the people 
of those islands consented or objected. 

"Speaking again, I said that 'only two things were left" for us to do with 
respect to the Philippines. I was speaking on that point. This is my language: 

" 'Only two things were left — to leave them to themselves at once and retire 
immediately, taking no responsibility whatever for the condition there obtaining, 
or else take charge of them by cession from Spain, asking the world to have confi- 
dence in this great Government, which has ever sought to do right, that we will 
deal with them as they should be dealt with.' 

"In answer to another question from the Senator from Maisachusetts, I said: 

" 'What I have said in answer to the Senator is in the Record, and will show 
that I do not know of anybody who wants to take possession of the Philippine Is- 
lands and govern the people of those islands indefinitely against their will by force 
of arms.' " 



HON. MARRIAT BROSIUS OF PENNSYLVANIA FOR EXPANSION. 

Mr. Brosius expressed himself pleased with a gentleman from Indiana because 
lie did not revise, revamp, and reiterate the argument heard so often, that it would 
be very wicked and wrong and unpatriotic for this Republic to compel by force, 
against the will of the people, the annexation of the Philippine Islands to the 
United States. Since no one has ever proposed such a policy, I sweep from the floor 
of debate all that kind of argument in the simple language of Abraham Lincoln, 
in replying to his distinguished rival. Senator Douglas, when he said: 

"Does the gentleman expect to stand in majestic dignity and pass through his 
apotheosis and become a god by his antagonism to a proposition which neither man 
nor mouse in all God's creation has ever advocated?"' 



616 PEOMOTIOX AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 

As to tradition, it was the wise reflection of the philosophic Buckle "that of all 
the ways in which truth has been distorted, there is none that has worked so mucli 
harm as an exaggerated respect for the past." 

Jefferson, the original American expansionist, suggested that this country 
would not tolerate the Gothic idea of looking backward instead of forward for our 
improvements in government or religion, or consulting the annals of our ancestors 
for the duties we owe the present. 

History abounds in illustrations of the fatality of submissive acquiescence in 
the traditions of the fathers. 

After the obstacles the geographic traditions of the patriotic fathers had 
thrown in the way of maritime adventure and discoverj- were overcome, says Dr. 
Draper, their ethnological traditions led to one of the monumental tragedies of his- 
tory. It was believed by the Spaniards, for the fathers had so declared it, that the 
people of Asia, Africa, and Europe, descending through the sous of Noah, Shem, 
Ham, and Japheth, comprised all the people on the earth of Adamic descent. When 
they found the New World inhabited, a question arose: What was the lineage of 
these new people? 

The voice of the fathers was altogether against their Adamic descent. St. Au- 
gustine had denied the globular form of the earth; and there could be no human 
beings outside of Asia, Africa, and Europe, since none are mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures. So the Spaniards, following the traditions of the fathers, proceeded to treat 
the natives of South America as outside the pale of the Adamic race and enslaved 
and murdered them by the millions. 

The fathers themselves knew that each century must do its own thinking. They 
would have agreed with Dr. Abbott, that if one generation has no Washington or 
Jefferson or Hamilton it must create them or die. They were wise enough to judge 
ojiinions as they judged coins — considering much less whose inscriptions they have 
than what metal they were made of; that soundness of opinion was more to be val- 
ued than their antiquity. Their minds were free from the shackles of the past. 
They knew that new occasions teach new duties. 

To-day, and not a hundred years ago, is the judgment day for the question of 
American expansion. 

But it remains to be said that this policy is not in violation of the traditions of 
the fathers of the Republic, as strenuously contended in some quarters. Our policy 
for a hundred years has been one of expansion. We have expanded from the Alle- 
gl^nics to the Golden Gate and far out into the Pacific Sea. The eagle's wings 
have grown until they are 8,000 miles from tip to lip. 



PROMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 617 

Jefferson not only desired Cuba, but Canada as well, and saw no insuperable 
difficulties in the Constitution to the attainment of so desirable an acquisition. Not 
only the fathers, but the sons of the fathers had the same hnn£;er and thirst for the 
rifjliteousness of emjnre. In 1854 President Pierce directed Buchanan, Mason, and 
Soule, our ministers at London, Paris, and Madrid, to meet in some European city 
to confer in regard to the best means of getting possession of Cuba. Jefferson had 
some scruples at first about the constitutional warrant for the purchase, but he soon 
disposed of them, and in his message to the special session of Congress convened to 
act on the treaty no allusion was made to the subject. He entertained no doubt 
of the wisdom of the purchase, and was not alarmed at the growth of our domain. 
Alluding to the apprehension some were under of danger to the Union, from the 
enlargement of our territory, he said: "But who can limit the extent to which the 
federative jirinciple can ojjerate effectively? The larger the association the less will 
it be shaken by local passions." 

I have faith to believe that we will be equal to our opportunities and 
worthy the grand and noble destiny that awaits \js. We have but to remember 
what it is the primal duty of Americans never to forget, "That man is more than 
nations, that wisdom is more than glory, that virtue is more than dominion of 
the sea, and that justice is the supreme good."" 

"Lord, God of hosts, be with us yet. 
Lest we forget, lest we forget.'" 

In closing I give my countrymen this sentiment: 

"And so I give you all the ship of state, 
Freedom's last venture is her priceless freight, 
God speed her, keep her, bless her, while she steers 
Amid the breakers of unsounded years. 
Lead her through danger"s paths with even keel 
And guide the honest hand that holds her wheel." 

In the lap of the Orient, mother of nations, I fling this pearl of poesy: 

"Mother Asia, we stand at your threshold. 

In far immemorial yore 
We left you, great Mother of Nations, 

And now we return to your door. 
We have circled the seas and their islands, 

We have found us new worlds in the main. 
We have found us young brides o'er the alien tides — 

Now we come to our mother again. 



618 riiU.MUTIOX AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 

"We wandered througli ages immimbered, 

We were mad with the lever to roam, 
But the new flag that waves at Manila 

Prochiims that your sons have come home. 
Tliere are weeds in the Gardens of Morning, 

Tliere are mildew and dearth and decay, 
And your blind days are drear and your heart has grown sere. 

The years that your sons were away. 

"But turn your old eyes to the seaward 

Where the flag of the AVest is discerned. 
Be glad, gray old Jlother of Nations, 

The youth of the world has returned. 
They come with the wealth of their wanderings. 

They come with the strength of their pride; 
Now, old mother, arise and lift up your dim eyes — 

Behold your strong sons at your side. 

"They will toil in your Gardens of Morning, 

They w-ill cleanse you of mire and fen; 
You shall hear the glad laughter of children. 

You shall see the strong arms of young men. 
New hope shall come back to your borders. 

Despair from your threshold is spurned, 
A new day shall rise in your Orient skies — 

The youth of the world has returned."' 



GOVERNOK OGLKSBY EXPANDS. 

• 

The venerable ex-Governor and Senator made these expansive remarks: 
"We have got to meet this question about the Philippines. Now, just what in 
the devil to do 1 don't know. We have got them and I am ever so much obliged to 
Senator Davis for the information about tlie origin and growth and con- 
clusion of the treaty and of the commissioners upon both sides. I know more 
about it than I ever did before, yet I knew enough about it before to be in favor 
of it. I didn't hemstitch or backstitch on it particularly. I was for it. So were 
you all, T suppose. Yes, I thought so. Now, we have got these Philippines. We 
don't know what kind of people they arc. But tlu\y are people — made in the 
image of God, it is said. I don't think that was the sentiment when the original 



PROMOTION AND ADVOCACY OF EXPANSION. 619 

scheme was jjut on foot. I don't tliink it was any part of the programme in the 
Garden of Eden. But there they are, human beings. They areu"t animals. They 
merely have intelligence enough to have risen in rebellion against Spain, and they 
have sense enough to still remain so against us. It is going to take time to tell 
them what to do. They are a long way from us. I wish it wasn't so far. It costs 
a good deal to get there. I could go to Minnesota and back ten times for one-fifth 
of the fare. 

"They are away off in front of China, not far from the equator. I don't know 
how they would have stood this cold spell we have had here. I think a little dose 
of that kind of weather would put a republic into them. They have got to lay 
down their arms. We have got to put that rebellion down. We have got to tackle 
the subject. The President says he will leave it to Congress. So would I if I could 
get out on that doctrine. But I am behind Congress. Congress is responsible to 
me and to you and to all of us private citizens. We are the power behind the 
tlirone." 



L'HAPTKl! X]V. 

THE HISTORY OF A-MKK'ICAX EXPANSION. 

Area of Our Territory When Jefferson Wrote tlie Declaration of Independence — 
The Wes^tward Course of Acquisition — The Northwest Territory Added 
— Acquirin<r All Territory East of the ilississippi River — Explorijig Expe- 
ditions Into Western Territory — The Louisiana Purchase — Views of 
Jefferson and Congress in 1803 — Annexation of Texas — Acquiring Cali- 
fornia and New Mexico — The Alaska Purchase — Expansion Opinions .of 
Law Writers — Decisions of the Supreme Court on the Subject of Acquiring 
Territory — Beneficial Effects of I{xpansion — We Need Not Fear the Future, 
and We Dare Not Step Backward — The Dream of Columbus Will Soon 
Be Realized. 

The ex])ansion of the Fnitcd States since the thirteen original colonies became 
tlu' Hill ion has been vast and \arious. Our enlargement has been steady. Each 
generation has gathered under our flag more land for the people. The credit of 
the latest and most applicable, exact and excellent, pertinent, apt to time and 
up-to-date history of these transactions belongs to the Hon. James R. ilann 
of Illinois. He says: 

"When Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence we had but a little 
more than 400,000 sqmire miles, and now we have nearly ten times that area. The 
original thirteen States cover an area of 34LT52 square miles, but included in 
them were the present States of Vermont, Maine and Kentucky, an area of 82,892 
square miles, wliich, added to the area of the thirteen origiiuil States, aggregates 
42-1,6-1-i square miles. This was the real area of the colonies which revolted from 
Great Britain and adopted the Declaration of Independence. 

"The territory included within the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, Tennessee, that part of iliiinesota lying east of the Missis- 
sippi River, and those parts of Alabama and Mississippi lying north of the thirty- 
first parallel of latitude were, by the treaty with Great Britain of 1783, acknowl- 
edged to belong to our country. A'arious parts of this territory were claimed by 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, South Carolina. Nortli Carolina, 
and Georgia under the colonial grants or patents from Enj;land, and by A'irginia 
as discovered and conquered territory. 

"The various interests of these States were afterwards ceded to the CJeneral 

Government. New Y'ork was the first State to make a cession to the General 

Government, Init her claim was an indefinite, undefined one of no merit, to the 

country lying west of Pennsylvania and north of the Ohio River. Massachusetts 

and Connecticut also claimed the territory lying west of Pcnnsylvanja between 

(!?o' 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 621 

their respective north and south boundary lines extended west to the Mississippi 
River. But it is now generally conceded that the State of Virginia was the State 
wliieli had the best title to the territory lying north of the Ohio River, called the 
Northwest Territory and now embracing the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, Wisconsin, and that part of Minnesota cast of the Mississippi River. 

"In the original charters and grants to the various colonies Massachusetts 
and Connecticut had each been granted lands ruflning westerly to the Pacific Ocean, 
then known as the South Sea. It was under these grants that those States claimed 
the portions of the Northwest Territory lying between their north and south 
boundary lines, respectively, extended west to the Mississippi, which river had, prior 
to that time, been fixed as the boundary line between the British and the Spanish 
possessions. Virginia also claimed a large portion of the Northwest Territory by 
reason of a similar grant. 

"But prior to the war of the Revolution no settlements had been made by 
either of these colonies in this Northwest Territory, and, on the contrary, that 
territory had been taken possession of and settled by the French, and the rights of 
France had been, with the rest of Canada, surrendered to Great Britain by the 
treaty of 1T62 in a way which made it free from the claims of the colonies. 

"Kentucky had been more or less settled l>y expeditions from Virginia, as 
well as Tennessee, to a certain extent, from North Carolina. South Carolina 
claimed- a small strip of land a few nnlcs wide running westerly from her western 
boundary through what is now the extreme nortli end of the States of Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mississippi to the Mississippi River. Georgia claimed the larger 
portion of what is now Alabama and Mississippi. 

"The different States interested ceded their interests in this western territory 
to the General Government. In 1781 New York ceded its indefinite claim, as well 
as some land now in Erie County, Pennsylvania, comprising 315 square miles. 
The cession by Virginia, made in 1784, including Kentucky, amounted to 35G,562 
square miles. The cession of Massachusetts, made in 1785, was for a claim cover- 
ing about 54,000 square miles. Connecticut, by her acts of 178G and 1800, ceded 
her claim covering about -40,000 square miles. The cession of South Carolina, 
in 1787, covered 4,900 square miles; that of North Carolina, in 1790, 45,000 
square miles, and that of Georgia, in 1802, 88,578 square miles. 

"By virtue of the several acts of cession from these seven original States, as 
well as by virtue of its claims under the treaty of 1783, the National Government 
came into possession of all that territory lying south of the British domain, east 
of the Mississippi River, and north of the thirty-first parallel of latitude. 



622 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 

'^EXPANSION DURIXG REVOLUTIOXARy WAR. 

"But the area thus ceded by the various States to the National Government, 
and embraced within the limits of the Northwest and Southwest Territories, did 
not constitute a part of the revolting colonies when the Declaration of Independ- 
ence was adopted. A large share of' this area had been once, constructively at least, 
a part of Florida. Subsecjiiently it became a French possession and was considered 
a part of Louisiana and Canada. ^Yhen, following the fall of Quebec, the French 
possessions in North America were surrendered by the treaty of 17G2 to Great 
Britain, the forts and settlements in the Northwest Territory were governed as 
a part of Canada. The British had one fort at Detroit, one in Kaskaskia, in 
southern Illinois, and one at Yincennes, on the Wabash, in southern Indiana. 

"The story of how this western territory east of the Mississippi River became 
a part of our country is one of the most dramatic and instructive lessons of our 
history. It is worth the reciting here somewhat in detail, because it illustrates the 
position taken by the founders of our nation at the time of the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence, and prior to and at the time of the reorganization 
of the National Government under the Constitution. 

"It was owing to the intrepidity of one man. He gained for the revolting 
colonies the right to claim the easterly half of the Mississippi Yalley. That man 
was George Rogers Clark, who was born in Yirginia, November 19, 1752. He 
hecame a surveyor, and in 17T.5 emigrated to Kentucky and was soon selected by 
his fellow-colonists to attend the Yirginia Legislature, to which, however, he was 
not admitted as a member. 

"When the Revolutionary war broke out no effort was made by the revolt- 
ing cqlonies to gain any foothold in the far West or to capture any of the British 
forts in that region. But George Rogers Clark, traveling back and forth between 
Kentucky and Yirginia, conceived the enterprise of adding to the revolting colonies, 
which he believed would surely win their struggle, the great British possessions 
lying cast of the Mississippi and north and south of Kentucky. Those possessions 
were wild, almo.st a wilderness, Init inhabited by ntimerous tribes of Indians. 

"Clark laid before Governor Patrick Henry, of Yirginia, and the members of 
the governor's council, including Thomas Jefferson, his plan of capturing the 
British forts north of the Ohio River, and thereby acquiring for A'irginia the im- 
mense domain north of that river. He was authorized by Governor Henry to raise 
seven companies of fifty men each to attack the British forces at Kaskaskia. 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. 623 

Colonel Clark made his rendezvous at the Falls of the Ohio, where now stands 
Louisville, and gathered together such men as he could readily obtain. 

"On June 24, 1778, his command, consisting of 153 men, broke camp at Louis- 
ville and started down the Ohio River in rowboats. Relays of oarsmen kept the 
boats moving during both night and day for four days and nights, when the com- 
mand landed at a point on the Ohio River somewhat east of where Cairo, 111., now 
is — a distance of about 120 miles southward from Kaskaskia. Kaskaskia was then 
a town of about 1,000 French inhabitants, located at or near where Chester, 111., 
now is. There was no road between the Ohio River and Kaskaskia, and the way 
was a wilderness — much of it a very swampy or rough country. 

"Colonel Clark's command had no wagons or pack horses with which to carry 
their baggage, siqiplies, or ammunition. On the evening of July 4, 1778, the 
command had arrived within three miles of the town of Kaskaskia, but with the 
Kaskaskia River yet to cross to reach there. After dark some boats were obtained, 
the river crossed, the town surrounded, the fort broken into, the British governor 
and troops captured, and before daylight Colonel Clark had possession of the entire 
place. His command had been six days on the road from the Ohio River to Kas- 
kaskia, moving at the rapid rate of twenty miles per day, and during the last two 
days almost' without food. 

"Discovery by the British scouts or the Indians would probably have resulted 
m their annihilation, but this little l:)and of less than 200 men, after rowing by 
turns for four days down the Ohio River and marching for six days through an 
unknown wilderness, without supplies, without a road, and without transportation 
facilities, had captured the military capital of the West, well provided with provi- 
sions, cannon, and soldiers, without the firing of a gun. Such a daring of purpose 
and celerity of execution has seldom been equaled in the world's history. Follow- 
ing the capture of Kaskaskia, the British post at Yincennes surrendered to an 
officer whom Clark sent there to demand its surrender. 

"The governor of A^irginia was informed of the success, and in October, 1778, 
an act was passed by the Legislature of Virginia organizing the county of Illinois, 
which included all the territory of the Commonwealth northwest of the Ohio 
River. 

"It is proper to add that the French settlers in the territory were not con- 
sulted by the Virginia Legislature, nor was the question asked whether they con- 
.sented to or desired the change of government. 

"But this new territory was not to be so easily won. Hamilton, who was the 



624 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPANSION. 

British governor of the territory and located at Detroit, heard of the success of 
Clark's invasion with surprise and indignation. 

"He hurriedly collected a force and on December 15, 1778, appeared before 
the fort at Yineennes with an army numbering five or six hundred and consisting 
mostly of Indians. There were only two American soldiers at the fort to defend 
it — a Captain Helm and a private by the name of Henry. They planted a cannon 
in the open gateway of the fort, and as Governor Hamilton and his command 
a])proached Captain Helm cried out, 'Halt!' standing by the cannon with a lighted 
match. The British officer demanded the surrender of the fort, whereupon Helm 
asked what terms of surrender would be given, and Hamilton replied that they 
might surrender with all the honors of war. The American garrison thereupon 
capitulated and Captain Helm and his force of one man marched out before the 
British command. 

"The fall of Yineennes was soon communicated to Colonel Clark at Kaskaskia, 
who was not in an easy position. He was without money, provisions, or supplies, 
and so far away from Yirginia that he could not even get word there in time to 
receive assistance. Hamilton had a larger force and had, besides the assistance of 
the Indian tribes, sufficient supplies, ammunition, and money. It was obvious that 
in the spring Hamilton would be enabled, with his superior force, to crush Clark 
and regain possession of the western capital at Kaskaskia for England. 

"The control and destiny of an empire in extent and imjiortance depended 
upon the ^ction to be taken. Fortunately for the history of our country, there 
was a Colonel George Rogers Clark at Kaskaskia. To wait at that point was to 
invite inevitable defeat. He conceived the hazardous enterprise of marching 
across the countrj', surprising and capturing Governor Hamilton and his command 
at Yineennes. 

"On February 5, 1779, Colonel Clark, with a force of about 175 men, started 
from Kaskaskia to march to Yineennes, a distance of 175 miles, though it was 
estimated by Clark that he traversed a distance of 240 miles by the way taken. 
It was at the worst possible season of the year. The snows had melted, and a large 
portion of the ground was under water. The creeks and swamps were enlarged to 
wide dimensions. The weather was stormy and rainy. Much of the time there 
was a cold drizzling rain. Part of the time, when crossing the creeks, the men 
would be compelled to push aside the floating blocks of ice. At night there was 
no dry place to lie down, and they had no tents for shelter. 

"The supply of provisions ran out, and during the last few days the men 
were almost without food, and as they came toward the end of the march it was 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 625 

imperative that discovery should be avoided, and hence the shooting of game was 
prohibited. On February 21, when they were trying to get through swamps and 
marches and the overflow of the Wabash River, they were compelled to wade 
through water in some places up to the neck, and the weather was so cold that 
in the morning the ice had frozen from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in 
thickness. 

"But on February 23, 1779, Clark and his command attacked Governor Ham- 
ilton in Fort Sackville at Vincennes, surprising him, and on the next day Hamilton 
surrendered. 

"The possession thus acquired was never lost. No rhetoric can add to a simple 
recital of the facts. In hazard of undertaking, in celerity and hardship of execu- 
tion, and in the success and importance of its results this short campaign of Colonel 
Clark in the winter month of February, 1779, has seldom, if ever, been equaled. 
Through the daring and the genius of one man the great Northwest had come into 
the possession of Virginia. From that time on the Continental Congress, in its 
discussion of a possible treaty of peace with Great Britain, insisted that the North- 
west Territory, from the Great Lakes southward, as well as the remainder of the 
British possessions east of the Mississippi River, should be considered as belonging 
to the revolting colonies. 

"And in the year 1779, while the war was in progress, but it seemed as though 
peace were possible, the Continental Congress considered in secret the terms upon 
which it would agree to peace with Great Britain, and in March, 1779, it was agreed 
by Congress that in case of peace it would insist upon the Mississippi River for 
the western boundary of the revolting colonies, from the source of the Mississippi 
to the thirty-first parallel of north latitude. Again, in August, 1779, instructions 
were agreed on by the Congress to give to a commission to be appointed for the 
purpose of negotiating peace, and again it was insisted that the Mississippi River 
should be the western boundary line. 

"The natives of that vast tract of country, mostly unexplored, were tribes of 
Indians. Most of the settlements were French. But it was not proposed or 
discussed that it was necessary to have an expression by vote or otherwise of the 
desires of the inhabitants of the territory acquired, nor was any tender senti- 
mentality indulged in by these makers of the Declaration of Independence. They 
saw that they had captured the British forts and capitals; they saw a valuable 
domain which might be added to their territory, and they promptly saw the value 
of keeping it. 

"But all of the colonies did not have colonial claims to portions of the newly 



02G THE HISTOEY OF AMERICAN EXPANSIOX. 

acquired territory. It soon became evident that the new domain might easily 
become eitlier a cause of dissension or a cause of closer union. If the States which 
claimed the new territory insisted upon their respective claims, then the new terri- 
tory mi^ht easily cause disputes or even war. But if the newly acquired territory 
should be turned over to the General Government, then there would be a domain 
of great value belonging to the central Government which would give it stability 
and strength. 

"I have already referred to the claims and the grants by the separate States 
to the General Government, but before those grants were made seven of the original 
States claimed colonies for themselves. Virginia had claimed and exercised the 
right of increasing her territory by conquest under Colonel Clark. 

"The cession from Virginia, by the act of December 20, 1783, contained the 
provision that the cession was upon condition that the territory so ceded should 
be laid out and formed into States, and that the States so formed should be admit- 
ted as members of the Federal Union, having the same rights of sovereignty, free- 
dom, and independence as the other States. 

"THE COXSTITUTIOXAL COXVEXTIOX. 

"The Constitutional Convention met in 1787. The Federal Government at 
that time had acquired the western territory, which it was understood would 
eventually be admitted as separate States in accordance with the Virginia cession. 
The ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Xorthwest Territory by a governor 
and judges had just been considered and passed. The question of the acquisition 
and government of new territory was therefore a live and familiar question with 
the framers of the Constitution. 

"Let me recall the circumstances connected with the adoption of section 3, 
Article IV, of the Constitution, ]iroviding that — 

"'New States may be admitted by the Congress into this T*nion. * * * The 
Congress .^hall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regu- 
lations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States.' 

"The Constitutional Convention adopted various preliminary resolutions con- 
cerning the form of government and constitution to be adopted, and on July 26, 
1787, referred them to a committee of detail as the basis for a draft of a con- 
stitution. Among these preliminary resolutions was: 

"'17. Resolved, That provision ought to be made for the admission of States 
lawfully arising within the limits of the United States, whether from a volun- 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. 637 

tary junction of government and territor)' or otherwise, with the consent of a 
number of voices in the National Legislature less than the whole.' 

''There was no other jirovision relating to government of territory or admis- 
sion of new States in these preliminary resolutions. On August 6 the committee 
of detail reported a draft of a constitution, which contained — 

"'Art. 17. New States lawfully constituted or established within the limits 
of the United States may be admitted by the Legislature into this Government; 
but to such admission the consent of two-thirds of the members present in each 
House shall be necessary. If a new State shall arise within the limits of any 
of the present States, the consent of the Legislatures of such States shall be also 
necessary to its admission. If the admission be consented to, the new States shall 
be admitted on the same terms with the original States. But the Legislature may 
make conditions with the new States concerning the public debt which shall be 
then subsisting.' 

"Wheli this article came up for consideration in the convention, after some 
discussion Gouverneur Morris moved as a substitute: 

"'New States may be admitted by the Legislature into the LTnion; but no 
new States shall be erected within the limits of any of the present States without 
the consent of the Legislature of such State as well as of the General Legislature.' 

"This substitute was amended by the convention so as to read as follows: 

" 'New States may be admitted by the Legislature into the Union; but no 
new State shall be hereafter formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any of 
the present States without the consent of the Legislature of such State, as well 
as of the General Legislature.' 

"This substitute as amended was adopted, though New Jersey, Delaware, 
and Maryland voted against it. The following clause was then added: 

" 'Nor shall any State be formed by the jxinction of two or more States or 
parts thereof without the consent of the Legislature of such States, as well as of 
the Legislature of the Ignited States.' 

"Mr. Carroll of Marj'land thereupon moved to add: 

" 'Provided, nevertheless, that nothing in this Constitution shall be construefl 
to affect the claim of the L^nited States to vacant lands ceded to them by the 
treaty of peace.' 

"Up to this time in the constitutional convention there had been no sugges- 
tion of any provision granting to the General Government authority to control 
or regulate the acquired territory. This could not have been, because the subject 
was not in the minds of the members of the convention. They had adopted reso- 



628 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

lution after resolution in reference to the form of government; they had proceeded 
in the consideration of the report of the committee of detail; they were thoroughly 
acquainted with the fact that Congress had assumed control of the newly acquired 
western territory; they knew well that Virginia had ceded her claim to the Xorth- 
west Territory to the Federal Government, hut it seems to have been assumed 
as a matter of course that any government organized under the Constitution would 
have authority to deal with its own property and its own domain. But some of 
the members of the convention were insistent that no provision should be inserted 
in the Constitution which sliould injure the claim of the United States to the 
lands ceded by the treaty of peace, and hence the provision which 'Mr. Carroll, 
of Maryland, moved to add. 

"After some discussion, however, Mr. Carroll withdrew his motion and moved 
the following: 

" 'Xothing in this Constitution shall be construed to alter the claims of the 
United States, or of the individual States, to the Western Territory; but all such 
claims shall be examined into, and decided upon, by the Supreme Court of the 
United States.' 

"Gouverneur Jlorris was the member of the convention who most frequently 
appeared as the draftsman of the various provisions agreed upon, and he moved 
to postpone the amendment of Mr. Carroll in order to take up the following: 

" 'The Legislature shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United 
States; and nothing in this Constitution contained shall be so construed as to 
prejudice any claims, either of the United States or of any particular State.' 

"This provision was adopted the same day and is practically identical with 
the provision in the Constitution. The history of its adoption seems to strongly 
indicate that it was intended to confer upon Congress full, absolute, and unre- 
stricted authority over- the territory or other property belonging to the United 

States. 

"THE ORDIXAXCE OF 1787. 

"The Constitution was framed and adopted at a time when the question of 
government -of the Xorthwest Territory was being discussed and decided upon. 
The ordinance of 1787, for the government of the Northwest Territory, provided 
for the appointment of a governor and three judges; and it was provided that — 

" 'The governor and judges, or a majority of them, shall adopt and publish in 
the district such laws of the original States, criminal and civil, as may be neces- 
sarv and best suited to the circumstances of the district, and report tliem to 



THE HISTOEY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. Cr29 

Congress from time to time; which hiws shall be in force in the district until ' 
the organization of the General Assembly therein, unless disapproved of by Con- 
gress.' 

"The General Assembly or Legislature was to be organized when the district 
contained a voting population of 5,00(1. It was to consist of the governor, a 
legislative council of five, appointed by Congress from ten persons named by the 
territorial House of Representatives, and that house to be elected by the people. 
An act was required to be passed by the representatives and a majority of the 
council and to receive the assent of the governor, who was given an absolute veto 
power. 

"The ordinance of 1787 was approved by the Congress elected under the 
new Constitution. That ordinance gave to the peojjle of the Northwest Territory 
no choice in the selection of their governor or judges, who were to select and modify 
laws for them. And even when the population should become 5,000, they could 
only elect one branch of the Legislature, and the governor appointed by the 
General Government was to have an absolute power of veto. No scruples about 
the just powers of government depending upon the consent of the governed hin- 
dered these practical men, who had organized a revolution for liberty, adopted 
a Declaration of Independence, framed a new Constitution, and inaugurated a 
new Government, from adopting practical common sense in the government of a 
new Territory. 

"THE INDIANA AND MISSISSIPPI TEERITOEIES. 

"The Indiana Territory was organized out of 'the territory of the United 
States northwest of the Ohio Eiver' by act of Congress, May 7, 1800, with a govern- 
ment 'in all respects similar to that i)rovided by' the ordinance of 1787. 

"The Mississippi Territory was organized with a similar government. 

"THE LOUISIANA PUECHASE. 

"But the men who framed the Declaration of Independence and the Consti- 
tution not only had an opportunity to give practical effect to their construction of 
those instruments by the organization of Territories in the new possessions east 
of the Mississippi Eiver, but they also had a still more conspicuous opportunity 
to construe those instruments in the acquisition and government of Louisiana. 

"In 1541, De Soto had reached the Mississippi Eiver. Father Marquette 



630 THE HISTORY OT' A:MERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

.descended it to its mouth in 1GT3, and in IGSO La Salle descended the Mississippi 
and took possession of the country adjacent in the name of Louis XIV. of France 
and called it Louisiana. 

'"In 1706 the French colonists settled on the site of what is now Xew Orleans. 
In 1717 the Louisiana country was granted by Louis XIV. to the company upon 
which was based John Law's great Mississippi scheme. But this charter, after the 
failure of the company, was surrendered in 1730. By the treaties of 1762 and 
1763 all of the French possessions west of the Mississippi, as well as the city of Xew 
Orleans, on the easterly side, were ceded to Spain, and the French possessions 
east of the Mississippi, excepting the island of Xew Orleans, and also the Spanish 
possessions east of the Mississippi were ceded to Great Britain. During the war of 
the Revolution Spain had recaptured the British possession of East and West 
Florida, and these were ceded back to her by the treaty of 1783. The Spanish, 
therefore, came to control both sides of the Mississippi River at its mouth and 
the west side throughout its entire length. 

"By the treaty with Spain of October 27, 1795, the southern boundary line 
of our country was fixed at 31° north latitude from the Mississippi River east, 
giving Spain control of the Mississippi from that line southward, but it was pro- 
vided in that treaty that the King of Spain — 

" 'will permit the citizens of the L'nited States, for the space of three years from 
this time, to deposit their merchandise and effects in the port of Xew Orleans 
and to export them from thence without paying any other duty than a fair price 
for the hire of the stores; and His Majesty promises either to continue this per- 
mission if he finds, during that time, that it is not prejudicial to the interests 
of Spain, or if he shoidd not agree to continue it there, he will assign to them, 
on another part of the banks of the Mississippi, an equivalent establishment.' 

"This was for the accommodation of the settlements along the east side of 
the Mississippi River and along its tributaries. 

"But France still looked with covetous eyes upon this great colonial possession 
which years before she had ceded to Spain, and by the secret treaty of San Ilde- 
fonso, October 1, 1800, Spain retroceded the province of Louisiana to France, 
though France did not then take possession, and the world was not made aware of 
the treaty for a year and a half. 

"^^liile the Spanish were still in possession of Xew Orleans and Louisiana, 
but after the execution of the treaty ceding that province back to France, the 
Spanish intendant at Xew Orleans, who had charge of such matters, declared by 
iV proclamation October 16, 1802, that the right of deposit no longer existed, which 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. G31 

meant that the citizens of our country couh.l no longer shijs their farm or other 
produce clown the Mississippi River in river boats and deposit the same there until 
it should be shipped away by vessel free of duty or other imposts. 

"About the same time it became known that Spain had ceded the province 
of Louisiana back to France and it was generally believed by the American citizens 
that this policy was one agreed upon between Spain and France for the purpose 
of taking away from the Americans the right of free navigation on the Mississippi 
River. 

"At that time river navigation was the only practicable method of shipment 
from a large share of the Mississippi valley, and if the right of deposit should 
remain suspended our nation's interests in the Mississippi valley would be bottled 
up tighter even than Cervera's fleet at Santiago. 

"The opposition to President Jefferson wanted to declare war and take forcible 
possession of New Orleans. Jefferson himself came to the conclusion that it was 
necessary for the United States to own at least one side of the Mississippi from its 
source to its mouth in order to maintain free navigation, and he commissioned 
^ James Monroe, afterwards President, to act with Robert Livingston, then minister 
to France, in an effort to purchase New Orleans and the rest of Louisiana lying 
east of the Mississippi River from France, and Congress appropriated the sum of 
$2,000,000 to be applied for that purpose. 

"The critical condition of affairs is strongly shown by the letter which Presi- 
dent Jefferson wrote on January 13, 1803, to Mr. Monroe, informing him of his 
appointment, and in which he said: 

" 'On the event of this mission depend the future destinies of this Republic. 
If we can not by a purchase of the country insure to ourselves a course of perpetual 
peace and friendship with all nations, then, as war can not be distant, it behooves 
us immediately to be preparing for that cause.' 

"Fortunately for our country, France and England were then on the verge of 
another war. England looked with grave objection upon the acquirement by France 
of the immense Louisiana province, and Napoleon, who was then the first consul 
of France and its ruler, quickly saw that in case of war the English, with their 
superiority at sea, would soon take possession of New Orleans and obtain control 
of the Mississippi River territory. 

"On Easter Sunday, April 10, 1803, Napoleon called two of his counselors 
who were best acquainted with the French foreign possessions and asked their 
advice. He said: 

'I know the full value of Louisiana, and I have been desirous of repairing the 



" 'T 



€32 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 

fault of the French negotiator who abandoned it in 1763. A few lines of a treaty 
have restored it to me, and I have scarcely recovered it when I must expect to 
lose it. But if it escapes from me it shall one day cost dearer to those who oblige 
me to strip myself of it than to those to whom I wish to deliver it. The English 
shall not have the Mississippi, which they covet.' 

"And after hearing from his advisers, one in favor of selling the province to 
the United States and the other in favor of retaining it, Napoleon said: 

" 'Irresolution and deliberation ai'e no longer in season. I renounce Louisiana. 
It is not only New Orleans that I will cede. It is the whole colony, without any 
reservation. I know the price of what I abandon, and I have sufficiently proved 
the importance that I attach to this province, since my first diplomatic act with 
Spain had for its obiect the recovery of it. I renounce it with the greatest regret. 
To attempt obstinately to retain it would be folly. I direct you to negotiate this 
affair with the envoys of the United States.' 

"A treaty of purchase was agreed upon by which the United States was to 
acquire not only New Orleans on the east bank of the Mississippi, but the vast 
province of Louisiana, extending from the Gulf along the west bank of the Mis- 
sissippi its entire length, reaching in its northern part, as claimed by many, across 
the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. 

"For this territory the United States was to pay France the sum of $11,250,000 
of principal, payable within fifteen years with interest, and also pay the sum of 
$3,750,000 to American citizens having valid claims against France. 

"The treaty was not received with favor by all classes in this country. The 
purchase went far beyond the authority which had been granted to Monroe and 
Livingston. They had been compelled to act on their own judgment. Napoleon 
was not willing to wait for instructions from home. It would take three months 
for our commissioners in Paris to communicate with their home Government. 
Delay was dangerous both to France and to the Ignited States. It was known by 
both Monroe and Livingston that the President, who had appointed them, was a 
believer in a strict construction of tlie powers granted by the Constitution. They 
had been commissioned by him to purchase a small bit of territory on the eastern 
bank of the Mississippi near its mouth, for a moderate sum, purely in aid of river 
commerce and navigation, and now they were offered a vast empire, which in 
time must become settled and governed, and for this they were asked to pay a 
sum which in those days was no inconsiderable amount, and to accept a provision 
in the treaty that the inhabitants would be incorporated as citizens of the United 
States. 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. G33 

"Possibly if there had been cable connection between Paris and "Washington 
in that day the result would have been different. Perhaps if daily instructions 
could have been sent by wire from Jefferson to his commissioners in Paris, there 
would have been no treaty agreed upon. Proliably we should never have acquired 
the domain west of the Mississippi River. There might have been there now a 
province of France, a colony of England, or an independent French or English 
speaking nation to limit our western growth and disjiute with us the national 
superiority on the Western Hemisphere. 

"The opponents of Jefferson did not take kindly to the treaty. The price 
paid, the character of the people acquired, the quality of the land purchased, the 
danger of unduly extending the limits of a republic, the violation of the Consti- 
tution by the provisions of the treaty, the lessons to be drawn from the growth 
and destruction of the Roman republic, in fine, all the objections to the expansion 
of a nation or the acquisition of new territory which the ingenuity of the human 
mind has been able to devise, seem to have been the subject of severe and 
learned comment by the opponents of the treaty for the Louisiana purchase. 

"Jefferson himself was not free from constitutional scruples. 

"In a letter from President Jefferson to Senator Breckenridge, dated August 
12, 1S03, he said: 

. " 'The treaty must, of course, be laid before both Houses, because both have 
important functions to exercise respecting it. They, I presume, will see 
their duty to their country in ratifying and paying for it, so as to secure a good 
which would otherwise probably be never again in their power. But I suppose 
they must then appeal to the nation for an additional article to the Constitution 
approving and confirming an act which the nation has not previously authorized. 
The Constitution has made no provision for our holding foreign territory, still less 
for incorporating foreign nations into our Union. The Executive, in seizing the 
fugitive occurrence, which so much advances the good of their country, has done 
an act' beyond the Constitution.' 

"VIEWS OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 

"In a letter to Senator Nicholas, of Virginia, September 7, 1803, President 
Jefferson said: 

" 'I am aware of the force of the observations you make on the power given 
by the Constitution to Congress to admit new States into the Union without 
restraining the subject to the territory then constituting the United States.' 



634 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 

But when I consider that the limits of the United States are precisely fixed 
by the treaty of 1783, that the Constitution expressly declares itself to be made 
for the United States, I can not help believing that the intention was not to 
permit Congress to admit into the Union new States which should be formed 
out (outside) of the territory for which, and under whose authority alone, they 
were then acting.' 

"In a letter from President Jefiferson to Secretary of State James Madison, 
dated August 25, 1803, Jefferson said: 

" 'Further reflection on the amendment to the Constitution necessary in the 
case of Louisiana satisfies me it will be better to give general powers, with specified 
exceptions, somewhat in the way stated below. * * * 

" 'P. S. — Louisiana, as ceded by France to the L'nited States, is made a part 
of the United States. Its white inhabitants shall be citizens and stand as to their 
rights and obligations on the same footing with other citizens of the L'nited States 
in analogous situations. Save only as to the portion thereof lying north of the 
latitude of the mouth of the Oreansa River, no new State shall bo established nor 
any grants of land made therein other than to Indians, in exchange for equivalent 
portions of land occupied by them, until amendment to the Constitution shall be 
made for these purposes. 

" 'Florida also, whenever it may be rightfully obtained, shall become a part 
of the United States. Its white inhabitants sliall thereupon he citizens and shall 
stand, as to their rights and obligations, on the same footing with otlier citizens of 
the United States in analogous circumstances.' 

"In a letter from Jefferson to Levi Lincoln, his Attorney-General, dated 
August 30, 1803, he proposed the following draft of an amendment to the Con- 
stitution: 

"'Louisiana, as ceded by France to the United States,' is made a part of the 
L'nited States. Its white inhabitants shall be citizens and stand as to their rights 
and obligations on the same footing with other citizens of the United States in 
analogous circumstances. Save only as to thai ])()rtion thereof lying north of an 
east-and-west line drawn through the mouth of the Arkansas River, no new State 
shall be established, nor any grants of land made other than to Indians in exchange 
for equivalent portions of land occupied liy them, until an amendment of the Con- 
stitution shall be made for these purposes.' 

"These letters from President Jefferson, in tlie light of present claims, are 
very instructive. JefTerson at that time was taking the position that under the 
Constitution there was no authority for that provision of the treaty providing that 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. 03.-) 

the inhabitants of the ceded territory should be incorporated into the Union. lie 
could not have believed there was no authority to acquire new territory by purchase, 
because he had appointed Monroe and Livingston as commissioners for the purpose 
of effecting a purchase of New Orleans and had obtained from Congress authority 
to expend $3,000,000 in that undertaking. 

"It must, therefore, have been the opinion of Jefferson that, under the Con- 
stitution, the Government had authority to purchase New Orleans and hold it as 
a possession of the United States, but did not have authority to admit its inhab- 
itants to all the rights of citizens or to subsequently create the new acquisition 
into a State or States to be admitted into the Union on equal terms. 

"The inference is irresistible that Jefferson believed that under the Constitu- 
tion our Government had authority to acquire new territory to be governed by 
Congress as a possession or colony. 

"This view is strengthened by the draft of amendment proposed by Jefferson. 
Jefferson's jiroposition was that the Constitution should bo amended so as to permit 
the admission of new States to be formed oiTt of a part of the Louisiana purchase, 
but that a portion of the new acquisition should not be admitted. As to a portion 
of the territory acquired by the treaty, he proposed that no new State shoiild 
be established out of it without a further amendment to the Constitution. 

"The claim is now frequently made that under the Constitution Congress has 
authority only to legislate for Territories for the purpose of subsequently creating 
them into States to be admitted on equal terms into the Union. Such certainly 
was not the view of President Jefferson, who proposed to adopt an amendment 
providing that a portion of the territory acquired should never be admitted as a 
State except by further amendment of the Constitution. Here again is an irre- 
sistible inference that Jefferson believed Congress had the power under the Con- 
stitution to control, regulate and legislate for Territorial possessions or colonies 
without any view of forming them into new States. 

"VIEWS OF CONGRESS IN 1803. 

"The treaty for the Louisiana jjurchase was ratified by the Senate in October, 
1803, at a special session of Congress called by the President for the purpose of 
considering it; and immediately liills were introduced to authorize the President 
to take possession of and govern the new province, and to provide for the payment 
of the sum agreed to be paid to France. 

"The discussion of these measures in the House and Senate gave to the mem- 
bers of those bodies an opportunity to express their views both as to the advisability 



636 THE IIISTOEY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

and the constitutionality of the treaty and the purchase. Xo study of the subject 
of our national growth would be at all complete without a full and careful reading 
of the debates at the extra session of 1803. The statesmen who then sat in 
Congress were near enough, in point of time, to the Declaration of Independence 
and the formation of the Constitution to feel in touch with the real spirit of those 
documents. And what is very remarkable in the discussion was that the oppo- 
nents of tlie treaty did not once in the course of a most determined opposition 
refer to the sacred rights of man proclaimed by the Declaration of Independence 
or to the proposition that the just powers of government depend upon the consent 
of the governed and the proposed overriding of those principles by the provisions 
of the treaty. They had far less imagination than gentlemen of the present day. 

"One of the provisions in the Louisiana purchase treaty was that — 

" 'The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union 
of the United States and admitted as soon as possible according to the principles 
of the Federal Constitution to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and 
immunities of citizens of the United States.' 

"The insertion of such a provision in the treaty would seem to indicate 
that at least the draftsman of the treaty did not believe that the mere cession 
of the territory to the United States would make it such a i^art of the United 
States as to extend the jurisdiction of the Constitution and the rights, advantages, 
and immunities of citizens of the United States to the inhabitants of the ceded 
territory. 

"The treaty also contained a provision giving a discrimination in favor of 
French and S]ianish ships coming into the ports of entry within the ceded territory 
for the space of twelve years. 

"Let me direct your attention to the constitutional provisions upon the sub- 
jects of uniformity of duties and discrimination between ports. 

"Section 8 of Article I of the Constitution provides that Congress shall have 
the power — 

" 'To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all 
duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.' 

"Section fl of Article I provides that — 

" 'Xo tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No 
preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports 
of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State 
be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in anothei".' 



THE HISTOKY OF AMERICAN' EXPAXSIOX. 637 

"Notwithstanding these provisions of the Constitution, it was provided by 
Article VII of the treaty that — 

" 'As it is reciprocally advantageous to the commerce of France and the 
United States to encourage the communication of both nations, for a limited time, 
in the country ceded by the present treaty, until general arrangements relative to 
the commerce of both nations may be agreed on, it has been agreed between 
the contracting parties that the French ships coming directly from France or any 
of her colonies, loaded only with the produce or manufactures of France or her 
said colonies, and the ships of Spain coming directly from Spain or any of her 
colonies, loaded only with the produce or manufactures of Spain or her colonies, 
shall be admitted during the space of twelve years in the port of New Orleans, and 
in all other legal ports of entry within the ceded territory, in the same manner 
as the ships of the United States coming directly from France or Spain or any 
of their colonies without being subject to any other or greater duty on the mer- 
chandise or other or greater tonnage than those paid by the citizens of the United 
States. * * *' 

"Although the treaty had been ratified Ijy the Senate, it was strongly attacked 
in the Flouse of Representatives on the ground that it was unconstitutional, and 
hence illegal, and that Congress was not therefore bound to consider it as the 
law of the land or make appropriations or enact legislation for the purpose of 
carrying out its provisions and giving it full effect. The discussion in the House 
and the legislation which was enacted are most instructive. I take the liberty of 
calling attention to full and fair extracts from speeches by leaders botli on the 
side of the Presidential party, which favored the treaty, and the opposition, which 
denounced it. I quote from the Annals of Congress. 

"IN HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, OCTOBER, 1803. 

"In discussing the effect of the treaty Mr. Mitchell, of Massachusetts, in the 
House of Representatives, in October, 1803, said: 

" 'There is nothing compulsory upon the inhabitants of Louisiana to make 
them stay and submit to our Government. But if they choose to remain, it has been 
most kindly and wisely provided that until they should be admitted to the rights, 
advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States they shall be main- 
tained and protected in the enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion 
which they profess. T\liat would the gentleman propose that we shall do with 
them? Send them away to the Spanish provinces, or turn them loose in the 



638 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

wilderness? Xo, sir; it is our purpose to pursue a much more dignified system 
of measures. 

" 'It is intended, first, to extend to this newly acquired people the blessings 
of law and social order; to protect them from rapacity, violence, and anarchy; 
to make them secure in their lives, limbs, and property, reputation, and civil 
privileges; to make them safe in the rights of conscience. In this way they are 
to be trained up in a knowledge of our laws and institutions. They are thus to 
serve an apprenticeship to liberty; they are to be taught the lessons of freedom; 
and by degrees they are to be raised to the enjoyment and practice of independ- 
ence. All this is to be done as soon as possible — that is, as soon as the nature 
of the case will permit, and according to the principles of the Federal Constitution. 

" 'Strange that proceedings declared on the face of them to be constitutional 
should be inveighed against as violations of the Constitution! 

" 'Secondly, after they shall have been a sufficient length of time in this proba- 
tionary condition, they shall, as soon as the principles of the Constitution permit, 
and conformably thereto, he declared citizens of the United States. Congress will 
judge of the time, manner, and expediency of this. The act we are now about 
to perform will not confer on, them this elevated character. They will thereby 
gain no admission into this House, nor into the other House of Congress. There 
will be no alien influence thereby introduced into our councils. 

" 'By degrees, however, they will pass on from the childhood of Republican- 
ism, through the improving period of youth, and arrive at the mature experience 
of manhood. And then they may be admitted to the full privileges which their 
merit and station will entitle them to. At that time a general law of naturalization 
may be passed. For I do not venture to affirm that, l)y the mere act of cession, 
the inhabitants of a ceded country become, of course, citizens of the country to 
which they are annexed. It seems not to be the case, unless specially provided 
for. By the third article it is stipulated that the inhabitants of Loiiisiana shall 
hereafter be made citizens; ergo, they are not made citizens of the United States 
by mere operation of treaty.' 

"Mr. Smilie, of Pennsylvania, stated that he — 

" 'Agreed in opinion with the gentleman from Massachusetts [Mr. Varnum] 
that the Constitution of the T'nited States did not extend to this territory any 
further than they were bound by the compact between the ceding power and the 
people. On this principle they had a right, viewing it in the light of a colony, to 
give it such government as the Government of the United States might think 
proper, without thereby violating the Constitution; when incorporated into the 



THE HISTORY OF AMEKICAK EXPAXSIOX. 639 

TJnion, the inhabitants must enjoy all the rights of citizens. He would thank 
gentlemen to show any part of the Constitution that extends either legislative, 
executive, or Judicial power over this territory. If none such could be shown, 
it must rest with the discretion of the Government to give it such a system as 
they may think best for it.' 

"Mr. John Randolph said: 

" 'A stipulation to incorporate the ceded territory does not imply that we are 
hound ever to admit them to the unqualified enjoyment of the privileges of citizen- 
ship. It is a covenant to incorporate them into our Union, not on the footing of the 
original States, or of States created under the Constitution, but to extend to them, 
according to the principles of the Constitution, the rights and immunities of 
citizens, being those rights and immunities of jury trial, liberty of conscience, 
etc., which every citizen may challenge, whether he be a citizen of an individual 
State or of a Territory subordinate to and dependent on those States in their 
corporate capacity. In the meantime they are to be protected in the enjoyment 
of their existing rights. There is no stipulation, however, that they shall ever be 
formed into one or more States. 

" 'Do not the United States possess Territories now? Is the possession of 
Territories confined by the Constitution to those they now hold? I believe not; 
for in the Constitution it is stated that "Congress shall have power to dispose 
of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States." Here is a clear recognition of territory 
belonging to the United States, and not merely of territory then 'held, but of 
territory which might in future be acquired by treaty or purchase. And if this 
territory be ceded to the United States, Congress have power, as soon as it is 
ceded, to make rules and regulations respecting it.' 

"Roger Griswold, of Connecticut, one of the leaders of the opposition, made 
the most elaborate argument against the constitutionality of the treaty: 

"'The gentleman from Pennsylvania [Mr. Smilie], however, has said that it 
is competent for this Government to obtain a new territory by conquest, and if a 
new territory can be obtained by conquest he infers that it can be procured in 
the manner provided for by the treaty. While I admit the premises of the 
gentleman from Pennsylvania, I deny his conclusion. 

" 'A new territory and uew subjects may undoubtedly be obtained by conquest 
and by purchase; but neither the conquest nor purchase can incorporate them 
into the Union. They must remain in the condition of colonies and be governed 
accordingly. The objection to the third article is not that the province of Louis- 



640 TilL ilLSTUKY UF AMERICAX EXPANSION. 

iana could not have been purchased, but that neither this nor any other foreign 
nation can be incorporated into the Union by treaty or by law; and as this country 
has been ceded to the United States only under the condition of an incorporation 
it results that if the condition is unconstitutional or impossible the cession itself 
falls to the ground.' 

"The opposition to the treaty of peace with Si)ain seems to be largely based 
upon the proposition that this country can not, in accordance with the letter and 
spirit of the Constitution, accept territory to be governed as colonies. This argu- 
ment has probubly been urged with more force than any other. It is the basis of 
most of the opposition to the acquisition of the Pliilippine Islands. 

"It has been insisted with eloquence, earnestness, and learning that it was 
contrary to both the policy and the spirit of our form of government that we 
should enter upon a colonial system, or that we should possess any territory or 
province to be governed upon the idea of a colony without merely considering 
such government as temporary in character and preparatory to statehood. 

"It is now urged most strenuously that any suggestion of the right to govern 
a possession as a colony is a violent departure from the plans and policies of our 
forefathers. 

"As I understand the opposition to the present treaty, the claim is made that 
the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands ought never to be permitted to form 
separate States to he admitted into the Federal Union, and that therefore we are 
violating the spirit of the Constitution if we annex them, Ijecause it was not 
contemplated that any territory should be annexed except what should be finally 
admitted into the Federal Union as States. 

"The opposition in 1803, when the Government was young, when the men 
who sat in Congress were those who had been present at the formation of the 
Constitution and tlie birth of the Eepublic, seem to have had a different idea. 
I again call attention to tlie remarks of 'Sir. Griswold, the leader of the opposition 
in the House. He said: 

" 'A new territory and new subjects may undoubtedly be ol)taincd by conquest 
and by purchase, but neither the conquest nor purchase can incorporate them 
into the Union. They must remain in the condition of colonies and be governed 
accordingly.' 

"Let me now call your attention to what Mr. Xicholson, of Maryland, one of 
the leaders of the Presidential party in the House, and who defended the treaty 
in an elaborate argument, said: 

" 'The other constitutional objection is raised upon the seventh article of 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 611 

the treaty, whicli provides that the ships of France and Spain shall be admitted 
for twelve years into the ports of the ceded territory without paying higher di;ties 
than the ships of the United States. 

" 'To this gentlemen have opposed that part of the Constitution which de- 
clares that no preference shall be given to the ports of one State over those of 
another, and that all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the 
United States. There appears to be a strange inconsistency in the arguments 
of the gentleman from Connecticut [Mr. R. Griswold]. He tells you that this 
Territory is not a State, and that it never can become a State; yet he afterwards 
declares that the treaty violates the Constitution by giving the port of New Orleans 
a preference over the ports of the Atlantic States. There is surely a contradiction 
here. 

" 'Whatever may be the future destiny of Louisiana, it is certain that it is 
not now a State. It is territory purchased by the United States in their confederate 
capacity, and may be disposed of by them at pleasure. It is in the nature of a 
colony whose commerce may be regulated without any reference to the Consti- 
tution. 

" 'Had it been the Island of Cuba which was ceded to us under a similar 
condition of admitting French and Spanish vessels for a limited time into Havana, 
could it possibly have been contended that this would be giving a preference to 
the ports of one State over another, or that the uniformity of duties, imposts, 
and excises throughout the United States would have been destroyed? And 
because Louisiana lies adjacent to our territorj', is it to be viewed in a different 
light? Or can the circumstance of its being separated by a river only, instead of 
the sea, constitute any real difference in regard to commercial relations which we 
may think proper to establish?' 

"It seems almost strange that while the leaders in favor of the Louisiana 
purchase and those opposed to its disagreed upon almost every proposition of fact 
and constitutional law, yet upon one vital point both Mr. Griswold, for the 
opposition, and Mr. Nicholson, in favor of the treaty, were in complete accord. 
Both were of the opinion that we had a right to acquire territory by purchase, and 
the~ right to govern such territory as a colony. Mr. Nicholson stated: 

" 'It is territory purchased by the LTnited States in their confederate capacity; 
may be disposed of by them at pleasure. It is in the nature of a colony whose 
commerce may be regulated without any reference to the Constitution.' 

"This was the opinion of the man who, by his argument, sustained and 
justified the treaty when it \yas attacked in Congress. He not only believed that 



642 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPANSION. 

we had the riglit to govern the newly acquired territory as a colony, but that we 
had a right to govern it without any reference to the Constitution. Upon this 
latter point Mr. Griswold did not agree. He said: 

" 'As to the idea of some gentlemen that this territory not being a part of 
the United States, but a colony, and that therefore we may do as we please with 
it, it is not correct. If we acquire a colony by conquest or purchase — and I believe 
we may do both — it is not consistent with the Constitution to delegate to the 
President, even over a colony thus acquired, all power, legislative, executive, and 
judicial, for this would make him the despot of the colony.' 

"But in saying this he reiterated his belief that Congress had the right to 
govern the new territory as a colony without regard to its future admission as 
a State, and the rest of his opinion was not adopted by Congress in the legislation 
then enacted. 

"Do not forget that these were the expressions and beliefs of men who were 
the leaders in the national House of Representatives in 1803, at the time when 
Thomas Jefferson was President and James Madison his Secretary of State. Do not 
forget that these were the opinions of the men who were living in the very dawn 
of the Republic, who were acquainted with the sentiment and spirit and policy 
of the people which had founded a new government, who themselves had partaken 
in the formation of our nation. 

"A great deal of very earnest and patriotic language has been used recently 
urging our country not to depart from the policy indicated by the Declaration 
of Independence and the spirit of the Constitution. 

"Strange, is it not, that the knowledge of this spirit and policy was unknown 
to the men who legislated in the days of Jefferson and Madison, InU has recently 
been acquired by those who now ardently o]i]iose American control in Porto Rico 
and the Philippine Islands? 

"But I do not wish to digress; I am simply desirous of calling attention to the 
history of the policy and spirit of our country as denoted by facts. 

"Article VII of the treaty gave a preference to French and Spanish vessels 
entering the port of New Orleans for twelve years, and it was urged by those 
opposed to the treaty that this was a violation of the Constitution which rendered 
the treaty invalid and illegal. 

"Upon this subject Mr. Griswold of New York, in opposition, after declaring 
that the Constitution gave no authority to annex territory by treaty, said: 

"' 'This article gives to the ships of France and Spain the same right of enter- 
ing the ports of the ceded territory with our own vessels, and it precludes the 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. G4.3 

ships of all other nations from the same right. Now, if, as gentlemen contend, 
the new ceded territory with the inhabitants should become incorporated with the 
United States, there will be ports of entry in the United States into which French 
and Spanish vessels may enter on terms different from those on which they may 
enter other ports of the United States. 

" 'The inference was that here was a favor granted to the ports of New 
Orleans over other ports. This was against an important princij)le of the Con- 
stitution, for in the ninth section of the first article we find, "No preference shall 
be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over 
those of another." This treaty, then, becomes the law of the land. It has made 
a commercial regulation. It gives to the ports of the ceded territory a preference 
to any other ports, because the produce of France and Spain can be carried cheaper 
to their ports than to any other. If the principle contended for by gentlemen 
in favor of the treaty is admitted, I think I see a fatal blow proposed against the 
Constitution of the United States by destroying the reciprocity of interest that 
unites at present the different members of the Union. Perhaps I see wrong.' 

"Mr. Griftm, of Virginia, said that — 

" 'He was correct, he believed, in stating that under the present regulations 
of trade Spanish vessels pay 50 cents TpCT ton, while American vessels paid only 
6 cents. Here, then, the President and Senate undertake to destroy this pro- 
vision made by law. For, according to the treaty, Spanish and French vessels 
entering the ports of New Orleans will hereafter pay only 6 cents a ton, while 
similar vessels coming to all the other ports of the United States will be obliged 
to pay 50 cents a ton. The difference between 6 and 50 constitutes the preference 
given to New Orleans.' 

"Mr. Eodney, of Delaware, sustained the treaty, and said: 

" ' "No preference," says the Constitution, "shall be given by any regulation 
of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another." In 
what way, under this treaty, is there any preference of one port over another? 
I would be glad to see it pointed out, and to be shown whether there is any prefer- 
ence of Delaware over Massachusetts, or of Virginia over Creorgia. No. The Con- 
stitution adverts to States themselves; and that the distinction between States 
and Territories is bottomed upon reason. Whence the necessity of the distinction? 

" 'Wlien Territories grow into States and become represented in the public 
councils, a majority of them may league together and carry into effect regulations 
prejudicial to other States. Hence the Constitution provides that in all commercial 
regulations all the States shall be equally affected. But such a league can not be 



644 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPANSION. 

effected by Territories, which have no Senators in the other branch, and in this 
only the voice, without the vote, of a single Delegate. Independent of this con- 
sideration is this: If by any jiarticular Territorial reeulation the territory of the 
United States is benefited, that territory being the common property of the United 
States, a public stock in which they all share, every State in the Union reaps alike 
the benefit.' 

"Mr. Mitchell, of Massachusetts, said: 

" 'By the treaty there is no preference given to one State over another in any 
commercial regulations. The jjort of New Orleans is not a part of any State 
in the Union. The abolition of the discriminating duties in favor of the two 
European nations is confined absolutely to the ports of Louisiana. They have no 
preference in the ports of any of the States. Xor is there given to one an advan- 
tage over the other.' 

"Mr. Elliott, of Vermont, said that^ 

" 'It was not contemplated that this provision would have application to 
colonial or territorial acquisitions. But it is said that the treaty obliges us to 
receive the inhabitants of the ceded territory into the Union and, of course, to 
form them into new States. * * * A complete discretion is left to the United 
States as to the time and manner of admission, and I have no idea that it will 
be necessary to admit them within the twelve years during which France and 
Spain are to enjoy those privileges.' 

"The gentlemen who opposed the treaty of that day had the same fears which 
have been excited by the gentlemen who have opposed the treaty with Spain. 

'^Ir. Griffin, of Virginia, said, in the House of Representatives in 1803, 
that he — 

" 'did not feel a disposition to discuss the merits of the treaty or to go at large 
into the consequences which it might produce. He did, however, fear those conse- 
quences; he feared the effects of the vast extent of our empire; he feared the 
effects of the increased value of labor, the decrease in the value of lands, and the 
influence of climate upon our citizens, who should migrate thither. He did fear 
(though this land was represented as flowing with milk and honey) that this Eden 
of the New World would prove a cemetery for the bodies of our citizens.' 

"Wliile Mr. Thatcher, of Massachusetts, said that he — 
" 'was not disposed to discuss the causes which have produced the dismemberment 
of empires, though all history showed that great empires, whether monarchies or 
republics, had been ultimately broken to pieces by their magnitude. * * * 

" 'This acquisition of distant territory will involve the necessity of a con- 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. CAn 

siderable standing army, so justly an object of terror. Do gentlemen flatter them- 
selves that by purchasing Louisiana we are invulnerable? No, sir; Spain will 
still border on our southern frontier, and so long as Spain occupies that country 
we are not secure from the attempts of another nation more warlike and ambi- 
tious.' 

"Mr. Roger Griswold said: 

" 'This subject was much considered during the last session of Congress, but 
it will not be found either in the report of the secret committee which has recently 
been published or in any document or debate that any individual entertained the 
least wish to obtain the province of Louisiana. Our views were then confined to 
New Orleans and the Floridas, and, in my judgment, it would have been happy for 
this country if they were still confined within those limits. The vast and unman- 
ageable extent which the accession of Louisiana will give to the LTnited States, 
the consequent dispersion of our population, and the destruction of that balance 
which it is so important to maintain between the Eastern and the Western States 
threatens at a no very distant day the subversion of our Union.' 

"TMiile Mr. Gaylor Griswold, of New York, another one of the leaders of the 
opposition, said: 

" 'If the principle contended for by gentlemen in favor of the treaty is ad- 
mitted, I think I see a fatal lilow proposed against the Constitution of the United 
States, by destroying the reciprocity of interest that unites at present the different 
members of the Union. Perhaps I see wrong.' 

"I recently heard it said by a member of the House in the debate here that 
he would rather give Spain $100,000,000 and not keep the Philippines than to take 
them for nothing. His remark was not exactly original. Senator White, of Dela- 
ware, in discussing the Louisiana treaty, made much the same remark in 1803. In 
the course of the debate at that time Senator White said: 

" 'Louisiana must and will become settled if we hold it, and with the very 
population that would otherwise occupy part of our present territory. Thus our 
citizens will be removed to the immense distance of two or three thousand miles 
from the capital, where they will scarcely ever feel the rays of the General Gov- 
ernment. Their affections will become alienated; they will gradually begin to view 
us as strangers; they will form other commercial connections, and our interests 
will become distinct. These, with other causes that human wisdom may not now 
foresee, will in time effect a separation, and I fear our bounds 'ft'ill be then fixed 
nearer to our houses than the waters of the Mississippi. We have already terri- 
tory enough, and when I contemplate the evils that may arise to these States from 



646 THE HISTORY OF AMKKICAX EXFAXSIOX. 

this inteiuled incorporation of Louisiana into the Union, I would rather see it 
given to France, to Spain, or to any other nation of the earth upon the mere 
condition that no citizen of the United States should ever settle within its limits, 
than to see the land in the territory soW for $100,000,000 and we retain the sover- 
eignty.' 

"VIEWS OF GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. 

"I have already called your attention to the history of the provision in the 
Constitution relating to the Government of the territory of the United States by 
Congress and to the fact that this provision of the Constitution, as well as many 
other provisions, was drafted by Gouverneur Morris. I now wish to call your 
attention to two letters written by Gouverneur Morris. He was a Federalist, a 
supporter of President Adams and a Ititter opponent of President Jefferson. He 
had been a member of the Constitutional Convention, and the proceedings of that 
body show that he was one of its most active and influential members. 

"When the Louisiana treaty was promulgated, Mr. Henry W. Livingston wrote 
to ^lorris asking him in regard to his construction of the provision relating to 
government of Territories. Morris replied; but his first reply was not fully satis- 
factory to himself, and a few days thereafter he sent another letter to Henry W. 
Livingston, dated December 4, 1803, in which he said: 

" 'A circumstance which turned up in conversation yesterday has led me again 
to read over your letter of the 3d of November and my answer of the 28th [25th]. 
I perceive now that I mistook the drift of your inquiry, which is substantially 
whether Congress can admit, as a new State, territory which did not belong to 
the United States when the Constitution was made. 

" 'In my opinion they can not. 

" 'I always thought that when we should acquire Canada and Louisiana it 
would Ije proper to govern them as provinces and allow them no voice in our 
councils. In wording the third section of the fourth article I went as far as circum- 
stances would ]iprniit to establish the exclusion. Candor obliges me to add my 
helief that, had it been more pointedly expressed, a strong opposition would have 
been made.' 

"And in a letter dated January 7, 180-1, written to Jonathan Dayton, Gou- 
verneur Morris said: 

" 'As to the cession of Louisiana, I should indeed have lost all shame as well 
as pretense to understanding if I did not approve of it. A few millions more 
or less in the price might be a fit subject for Democrats to bawl about if the treaty 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. C,47 

had been made by their opponents, but it really seems unworthy of Lotice when 
the subject is taken up on a great scale. I see with you that it will not be easy 
to find a proper governor for the newly acquired territory, supposing always the 
Administration to know the kind of a man necessary to the office and to seek him 
without motives of party or partiality. 

" 'Let me add my belief that no man, without the support of at least 1,000 
American bayonets, can duly restrain the inhabitants of that region. * * * 

'" 'There are two points which do not meet my approbation. * * * 
My other objection is more serious. The stipulation to admit the inhabitants into 
our Union will, I believe, prove injurious to this country. (Diary and Letters 
of Gouverneur Morris, by Anne Cary Morris, volume 2, page 452.)' 

"Here we have the construction of one of the leading framers of the Consti- 
tution. Although politically opposed to President Jefferson, he was in favor of 
the purchase of Louisiana; he believed that we had the right to govern it as a 
province; that we had no constitutional right to admit the acquired territory as. 
new States; that it would be necessary to govern the annexed territory by force 
of bayonets and arms; and his. only objection to the treaty was that it provided 
for the eventual admittance of the inhabitants into the Union. 

"ACT TO TAKE POSSESSION OF LOUISIANA. 

"The discussion of the treaty at the special session in October, 1803, resulted 
in the passage of an act authorizing the President to take possession of the ceded 
territory and providing for the temporary government thereof. The bill for this 
act passed the House of Representatives by a vote of S9 yeas to 23 nays. It passed 
the Senate by an almost unanimous vote. Permit me to call your attention to 
its terms. It provided: 

" 'That the President of the United States be, and he is hereby, authorized 
to take possession of and occupy the territory ceded by France to the United States 
by the treaty concluded at Paris on the 30th of April last between the two nations; 
and tb.at he may for that purpose, and in order to maintain in the said territories 
the authority of the L'nited States, employ any part of the army and navy of the 
United States, and of the force authorized by an act passed the 3d day of March 
last, entitled "An act directing a detachment from the militia of the United States, 
and for erecting certain arsenals," which he may deem necessary, and so much 
of the sum appropriated by the said act as may be necessary is hereby appro- 
priated for the purpose of carrying this act into effect; to be applied under the 
direction of the President of the United States. 



648 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 

" 'See. 2. And be it further enacted. That until the expiration of the present 
session of Congress, or unless provision be sooner made for the temporarj' govern- 
ment of the said Territories, all the military, civil, and judicial powers exercised 
by the ofiBcers of the existing government of the same shall be vested in such 
person and persons, and shall be exercised in such manner, as the President of 
the United States sliall direct for maintaining and protecting the inhabitants of 
Louisiana in the full enjoyment of their liberty, property, and religion.' 

"The other act, which was referred to in section 1 of the above act, was the 
act of ^larch 3, 1803, authorizing the President, whenever he shall judge it expe- 
dient, to take effectual measures to organize, arm, equip, and hold in readiness 
to march at a moment's warning, a detachment of militia not exceeding 80,000. 

'"In the recent debate in the House upon the bill for the increase of the army 
a great deal was said l)y the opponents of the treaty about the danger of granting 
authority to the President to control an army of between fifty and one hundred 
thousand, with authority to send them into the territory ceded by Spain for the 
purpose of obtaining and maintaining forcible possession. It will be noted that, 
although the inhabitants of New Orleans and the rest of the province of Louisiana 
had not been consulted about the cession of their territory to the United States, 
yet Congress, in 1803, under the inspiration of President JefEerson and James 
Madison, enacted this law authorizing the President to call out troops to the 
number of 80,000 for the purpose of taking forcible possession of New Orleans. 

"It was well known at tliat time that Spain was inclined to object to the 
cession of Louisiana by France to this country, and it was also known that the 
inhabitants of the ceded territory did not desire to come under the sovereignty 
and control of the United States. 

"It will be noticed that the act of 1803 gave to President Jefferson despotic 
and unlimited power over the newly ceded territory for its temporary government. 

"OEGANIZATION OF GOVEEXMEXT FOE LOUISIANA. 

"The United States took possession of New Orleans December 20, 1803, and 
a little later Congress proceeded to the enactment of legislation for tlie organiza- 
tion of Territorial government for the newly acquired possessions. 

"One of the disputed propositions at present in regard to the annexation of 
the Philippine Islands is whether by the ratification of the treaty and the annexa- 
tion of those islands to the United States the Constitution, with all of its provisions, 
is thereby extended over the annexed territory. I have already called attention to 



THE HISTORY OF AMERIClN EXPANSION. r,49 

the preference given to Spanish and French ships for twelve years at the port of 
New Orleans by the treaty, contrary to an expressed provision of the Constitution, 
if that provision were held to apply in the new territory. 

"I have also called attention to the opinions of the various members of Con- 
gress expressed in the debate. Permit me to now call your attention to the act 
which was passed for the organization of Territorial government for the Louisiana 
purchase and to the consideration of the bill for that purpose in the House of 
Kepresentatives. And first note that section 2 of Article III of our Constitution 
provides that — 

" 'The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury.' 

'"The sixth amendment to the Constitution provides that — 

"'In all criminal iDrosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy, 
and public trial by an impartial jury.' 

"The seventh amendment provides that — 

" 'In all suits at common law where the value in controversy shall exceed 
$20 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved.' 

"It seems almost patent that if the Constitution was, by the consummation of 
the acquisition, extended over the new territory, then these constitutional provisions 
became at once in force in the new territory, and that Congress could not pass any 
valid act in any way limiting the rights thus guaranteed. And yet that is precisely 
■what Congress proceeded to do. I call your attention to the act of March 26, 
1804, for the organization of a -government for the newly acquired Louisiana 
territory. 

"In section 5 of the act as it was finally passed is the provision — 

" 'In all criminal jirosecutious which are capital the trial shall be by a jury 
of twelve good and lawful men of the vicinage; and in all cases, criminal and civil, 
in the superior court the trial .«hall be by a jury if either of the parties require it." 

"The same provision was in the bill when first introduced in the Senate. 
During the consideration of this section of the bill in the Senate, in January, 
1804, it was moved to amend that clause of the fifth section reading 'In all criminal 
prosecutions which are capital the trial shall be by a jury of twelve good and lawful 
men of the vicinage,' by striking out the words 'which are capital;" but the motion 
was defeated by a vote of 11 yeas to 16 nays. 

. "When the same section was under consideration in the House of Repre- 
sentatives in March, 1804, Mr. G. W. Campbell moved to strike out of that clause 
the words 'which are capital the trial shall be by a jury of twelve good and lawful 
men of the vicinage; and in all cases, criminal and civil, in the superior court the 



OJO . THE HISTORY OF AMEKICAX EXPANSION. 

trial shall be by a jury if either of the parties require it,' and to insert in place 
thereof the words 'the trial shall be by jury, and in all civil cases above the value 
of $20,' for the purpose of making the clause comply with the provisions of the 
Constitution. 

"And Mr. Campbell said, in support of his motion, that he — 
" 'conceived that in legislating for the peojjle of Louisiana they were bound by 
the Constitution of the United States, and that they had not a right to establish 
courts in that Territory on any other terms than they could in any of the States. 
Wherever courts were established in a Territory, they must be considered as 
courts of the United States, and of consequence can not be otherwise constituted 
than as courts in the States. The Constitution expressly declares that in criminal 
cases the trial shall be by jury, and in all civil cases where the sum in controversy 
exceeds the value of $20 the trial shall be likewise by jury. In the ninth article 
of the amendments to the Constitution we find the following words: "In suits at 
common law where tlie value in controversy shall exceed $20 the right of trial by 
jury shall be preserved." The eighth article says: "In all criminal prosecutions 
the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury." 

" "I will observe that the right of trial given by this section, to wit. "If either 
of the parties require it,"' is a dangerous mode of proceeding and may tend unwarily 
to entrap them. The person brought before the court for a misdemeanor, asked 
if he requires a jury trial, may be ignorant of the evidence and may not know the 
benefits of a trial by jury; he must at all events show a want of confidence in the 
court or waive a jury trial. If he does the first, he may sour the minds of the 
court. The party is thus put in a situation which may be worse than if he was 
deprived altogether of the right of a trial by the necessity of making a choice 
which may operate more against him. The bill, therefore, does not secure the 
right of a jury trial as contemplated by tlic Constitution.' 

"It seems apparent that if the contention of Mr. Campbell that the Con- 
stitution did apply to the new territory was correct, then his amendment was 
necessary in order to make the proposed enactment constitutional. And yet his 
amendment was defeated by an overwhelming majority. 

"The act erecting Louisiana into two Territories and providing for the tem- 
porary government thereof became a law by the approval of President Jefferson 
(author of the Declaration of Independence and founder of the Democratic party) 
March 2(), 1804. The provisions of that act are very instructive at the present 
time. I have already referred to the ordinance of 1787 and the acts organizing 
the Territories of Indiana and Mississippi. 



THE HISTOEY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 651 

"But this was the first act organizing a government in territory acquired by 
the United States subsequent to the adoption of the Constitution, and it emphasizes 
the opinion of the statesmen of that day as to the rights and power of Congress 
in the government of the acMjuired territory. 

"By that act what is now the State of Louisiana was organized into the Terri- 
tory of Orleans. Section 4 of the act provided as follows: 

" 'Sec. 4. The legislative powers shall be vested in the governor and in 
thirteen of the most fit and discreet persons of the Territory, to be called the 
legislative council, who shall be appointed annually by the President of the Tnited 
States from among those holding real estate therein, and who shall have resided 
one year at least in the said Territory and hold no office of profit under the Terri- 
tory or the United States. The governor, by and with advice and consent of the 
said legislative council, or of a majority of them, shall have power to alter, modify, 
or repeal the laws which may be in force at the commencement of this act. Their 
legislative powers shall also extend to all the rightfid suljjects of legislation, but 
no law shall be valid which is inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the 
United States, or which shall lay any person under restraint, burden, or disability 
on account of his religious opinions, professions, or worship; in all which he .shall 
be free to maintain his own, and not burdened for those of another. 

" 'The governor shall publish throughout the said Territory all the laws which 
shall be made, and shall from time to time report the same to the President of the 
United States, to be laid before Congress, which, if disapproved of by Congress, 
shall thenceforth be of no force. The governor or legislative council shall have 
no power over the jirimary disposal of the soil, nor to tax the lands of the United 
States, nor to interfere with the claims to land within the said Territory. The 
governor shall convene and prorogue the legislative council whenever he may deem 
it expedient. It shall be his duty to obtain all the information in his power 
in relation to the customs, habit.t, and dispositions of the inhabitants of the said 
Territory, and commimicate the same from time to time to the President of the 
United States.' 

"In other words. Congress, in the early days of the Eepublic, organized a 
government in newly acquired territory not only without asking for the consent 
of the governed, but absolutely without regard to their wishes and without giving 
to them any local legislative influence. 

"The legislative powers were vested in a governor and a legislative council 
of thirteen, all to be named by the President of the United States. And the gov- 
ernor, by and with the consent of this legislative council, might enact such legis- 



bb-i THE HISTORY OF AMI-:RICAN EXPANSIOX. 

lation as he saw fit. He could convene and prorogue the legislative council to 
suit his whim. 

"History compels us to say that it was Thomas Jefferson, the author of the 
Declaration of Independence, the founder of the Democratic party, who signed 
his approval to this law as President: and he made the appointments in accordance 
with its term. And when he did so, his Secretary of State and confidential adviser 
was James JIadison, the member and historian of the Constitutional Convention. 

"Xor was this all. As to the remainder of the Louisiana jjrovince, it was 
.organized into the district of Louisiana, and by section 12 of the act it was provided 
that the executive power to be exercised in the said district should be vested in 
the governor of the Indiana Territory, and that the governor and judges of the 
Indiana Territory should have power to make all laws which they might deem 
conducive to the good government of the inhabitants of the district of Louisiana. 
And yet no complaint is now made that President Jefferson and the Congress 
which enacted this law acted foolishly or unwisely, or that their act was a breach 
of the principles of self-government expressed in our form of government. 

"The people of Xew Orleans, however, did not like the new form of govern- 
ment. Martin, the historian of Loiiisiana, says, referring to the transfer to the 
United States: 

" 'The people of Louisiana, especially in New Orleans, were greatly dissatis- 
fied at the new order of things. They complained that the person whom Congress 
[President Jefferson] had sent to preside over them was an utter stranger to their 
laws, manners, and language, and had no jiersonal interest in the prosperity of 
the country: * * * that in the new court of pleas, most of the judges of which 
were ignorant of the laws and language of the country, proceedings were carried 
on in the English language, which Claiborne had lately attempted to introduce 
into tlie jjroceedings of the municipal body, and the suitors were in an equally 
disadvantageous situation in the court of last resort, in which he sat as sole judge. — 
^lartin's History of Louisiana, page 322.' 

"The dissatisfaction of the people of Xew Orleans increased. Meetings were 
held, committees were appointed, and a deputation of three was sent before 
Congress to obtain redress. Martin says the deputation was not successful in their 
application to Congress. In March, 1805, Congress passed an act to establish a 
Territorial government similar to that of the Mississippi Territory. This provided 
for the appointment by the President of a governor, with an absolute veto power. 
In vain did the Xew Orleans deputation plead for an amendment to the bill 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 653 

providing that the governor should be chosen by the President out of two indi- 
viduals selected by the people. 

"The conclusion is almost irresistible that the position taken by the President 
and Congress, on the consideration of the subject at the time, was that before 
being made into States the newly acquired territory had no rights under the Con- 
stitution; that it was to he governed independently of the Constitution and 
entirely outside of its limiting provisions; that it had no benefits from the Con- 
stitution except such as Congress, in its discretion, chose to extend; that it was 
to be governed as property; 'the soil, as a sovereign would govern his property; 
the inhabitants, as a father would take care of his children.' 

"The statesmen of that day attempted to govern the new possession in the 
only common-sense method. They acquired a vast possession which required some 
form of suitable government. Who now wishes that they had rejected the Louisiana 
purchase on the ground that they could not govern it except by despotic methods? 
It is true that the territory was sparsely settled outside of the city of New Orleans, 
but do the Constitution and Declaration of Independence only apply to thick settle- 
ments or large aggregations of people and not to the pioneers who take up their 
abode and make a fight for civilization in the sparsely settled Territories? 

"Is there any reason why, if Congress can give a suificient and suitable govern- 
ment to a region too sparsely settled to admit of self-government without asking 
the consent of the inhabitants, the same Congress can not give a sufficient and suit- 
able government to a region settled by a people who have not proven their capacity 
for self-government? "What is the difference in principle, either as to the rights 
enunciated by the Declaration of Independence or the liberties guaranteed by the 

Constitution? 

"THE ACQUISITION OF FLORIDA. 

"But I do not wish to wander from my historical narrative. In April, 1818, 
General Andrew Jackson, one of the patron saints of the Democratic party, in 
the prosecution of the Indian war, took possession of the Spanish fort at St. 
Marks, Fla., by force of arms, and, when remonstrated with by the Spanish gov- 
ernor, replied by entering Pensacola in May and capturing the Spanish fort at 
Barancas. Negotiations were then pending for the purpose of settling the boundary 
lines between the United States and the Spanish possessions on the west and 
south. 

"A treaty was concluded February 22, 1819, by which the boundary lines 
between the United States and the Spanish possessions were agreed upon, and at 
the same time Spain ceded the Spanish province of East Florida and the Spanish 



654 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

title of West Florida to the United States for the consideration of $5,000,000. This 
treaty was not ratified by the King of Spain until October 29, 1820, after which 
it was again ratified by the Senate on February 19, 1821. 

"Article VI of the Florida treaty provided that — 

" 'The inhabitants of the territories which His Catholic Majesty cedes to the 
"United States by this treaty shall be incorirorated in the Union of the United 
States as soon as may be consistent with the principles of the Fedei-al Constitution, 
and admitted to the enjoj-ment of all the privileges, rights, and immunities of the 
citizens of the United States." 

"And Article XT provided that — 

" 'The United States, to give His Catholic Majesty a proof of their desire to 
cement the relations of amity subsisting between the two nations and to favor 
the commerce of the subjects of His Catholic Majesty, agree that Spanish vessels 
coming laden only with productions of Spanish growth or manufactures directly 
from the ports of Spain or of her colonies shall be admitted, for the term of 
twelve years, to the ports of Pensacola and St. Augustine, in the Floridas, without 
paying other or higher duties on their cargoes, or of tonnage, than will be paid 
by the vessels of the United States. During the said term no other nation shall 
enjoy the same privileges within the ceded territories. The twelve years shall 
commence three months after the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty.' 

"AXXEXATIOX OF TEXAS. 

"The treaty with Spain fixed the boundary line between the United States and 
the Spanish' possessions at what is now the easterly line of Texas. The present 
State of Texas was originally a part of the French or Spanish possessions west of 
the Mississippi River. In 1827 Henry Clay, then Secretary of State under Presi- 
dent Adams, instructed the United States minister to ilexico to offer $1,000,000 
for the Mexican territory east of the Rio Grande. 

"In 1829 Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State under President Jackson, 
instructed our minister to Mexico to offer $5,000,000 for the portion of Texas 
this side of the Xeuces River, but Mexico refused the offer. In 1830 orders were 
issued by our Government to prevent any further emigration from the United 
States to Texas. On May 27, 1836, the Republic of Texas was proclaimed, and 
on March 3, 1837, it was recognized by the United States. 

"In 1844 the President negotiated a treaty with the new Republic of Texas 
for the annexation of Texas to the United States and her admission as a State 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. 65.5 

in the Federal Vnion. When this treaty was presented to the Senate for its ratifi- 
cation, instead of receiving the necessary two-thirds vc>e to secure a ratification, 
it was rejected in the Senate by a vote of IG ayes t,'> 35 nays. 

"But on February 25, 1845, the House of Eepresentatives, by a vote of 
120 ayes to 98 nays, passed a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas, and 
on ilarch 1, 1845, this resolution was passed by the Senate by a vote of 27 ayes to 
25 nays. It will be noticed that this was a Senate consisting of the same mem- 
bers who in the previous year had rejected the treaty for annexation by more 
than a two-thirds vote in the negative. It will also be noticed that a change of 
one vote from aye to nay on the passage of the joint resolution would have de- 
feated that resolution. 

"Texas on July 4, 1845, consented to annexation upon the terms named in 
the joint resolution, and on December 29, 1845, she was admitted as a State into 
the Union. At the time of the passage of the joint resolution, and also at the time 
of the admission of Texas as a State, Texas was considered as in rebellion by the 
Ecpublic of Mexico, and her independence had not then been acknowledged by 
the Mexican Government, against which she had revolted. 

"THE ACQUISITION OF CALIFORNIA AND NEW MEXICO. 

"War with Mexico seemed imminent on account of the admission of Texas, 
and under date of November 10, 1845, James Buchanan, then Secretary of State, 
instructed our minister to Mexico to offer the Mexican Government $5,000,000 
for the cession of New Mexico, $25,000,000 for the cession of the province of Cali- 
fornia as far north as San Francisco, and $20,000,000 for the bay and harbor of 
San Francisco and the Spanish territory to the northward. It is not necessary 
for me to recite the events leading up to the war with Mexico, which was declared 
to exist by a declaration of Congress passed on May 13, 184C. Nor is it necessary 
to call attention to the history of the Mexican war, which resulted in the treaty 
of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which was made February 2, 1848, amended by the Senate 
in ratification, and proclaimed July 4, 1848. 

"It will be recalled that there was quite a Spanish settlement in California 
at the time of its acquisition by this country. In New Mexico was Santa Fe, 
the second oldest town in the United States. When Florida had been acquired 
there came with it St. Augustine, the oldest town in our country. But in neither 
case had any expression been given by the inhaliitants of the ceded territories 
showing that they desired annexation to this country. They had not been in 



G56 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 

any way consulted. The Spanish people of California did not desire annexation. 
They were living happily under Mexican dominion, and they had no desire to 
be taken away from their own country. Their wishes or their inclinations were, 
not considered when making the treaty of peace. 

"Although the United States had defeated the Mexican Government and was 
in possession of the capital of Mexico at the time the treaty was entered into, one 
of the provisions was that this country was to pay to ^lexico, in consideration 
of the cession of New Mexico and California, the sum of $15,000,000, and this sum 
was afterwards paid in pursuance of the treaty. 

"I have heard considerable said upon the floor of the House in denunciation 
of the provision of the present treaty with Spain for the payment by us to Spain 
of $20,000,000 as part consideration of the cession of the Philippine Islands. We 
have been told by gentlemen here representing the Democratic party that it was 
beneath the dignity of this country, after having defeated Spain in war, to now 
turn around and pay to Spain a large sum of money for that which, if we take 
at all, we ought to take purely and solely as victors. And I have wondered whether 
their denunciation extended far enough back to take in the Democratic President 
and Secretary of State under whose guidance and direction the provision was 
inserted in the treaty with Mexico for the payment of $15,000,000. 

"But again I do not wish to digress. 

"Article VIII of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, providing for the rights of 
the inhabitants in the ceded territory, was as follows: 

" 'Mexicans now established in territories previously belonging to Mexico, and 
which remain for the future within the limits of the United States, as defined by 
tlic present treaty, shall be free to continue where they now reside or to remove 
at any time to the Mexican Republic, retaining the property which they possess in 
the said territories, or disposing thereof, and removing the proceeds wherever 
they please, without their being subjected, on this account, to any contribution, 
tax, or charge whatever. 

" 'Those who prefer to remain in the said territories may either retain the 
title and rights of 'Mexican citizens or acquire those of citizens of the United States. 
But they shall be under the obligation to make their election within one year from 
the date of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty; and those who shall remain 
in the said territories after the expiration of that year, without having declared 
their intention to retain the character of ^Icxicans, shall be considered to have 
elected to become citizens of the United States. 

" In the said territories property of every kind now belonging to Mexicans- 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 657 

not established there shall be inviolably respected. The present owners, the heirs 
of these, and all Mexicans who may hereafter acquire said property by contract shall 
enjoy with respect to it guaranties equally ample as if the same belonged to citizens 
of the United States.' 

"Article IX of the treaty, as negotiated and presented to the Senate for ratifi- 
cation, was as follows: 

" 'Tlie Mexicans who in the Territories aforesaid shall not preserve the char- 
acter of citizens of the Mexican Republic, conformably wdth what is stipulated in 
the preceding article, shall be incorporated into the Union of the United States 
and be admitted at the proper time (to be judged of by the 'Congress of the United 
States) to the enjo}'ment of all the rights of citizens of the United States, accord- 
ing to the principles of the Constitution; and in the meantime shall be maintained 
and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty and property, and secured in 
the free exercise of their religion without restriction.' 

"This ]5rovision was somewhat different from the provisions covering the same 
point in the treaties for the acquisition of Louisiana and Florida, and when the 
treaty came before the Senate for ratification, for some reason, which does not 
seem fully disclosed, but probably was simply to maintain uniformity, it was 
ordered by the Senate that the treaty be ratified with an amendment, inserting 
in place of article 9, as it read in the original draft of the treaty, the third 
article of the Louisiana treaty. 

"The treaty with Spain, which has just been ratified by the Senate, after a 
memorable campaign for and against its ratification in this country, has created 
only a mild discussion compared with the bitter and violent debate in the country 
over the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of California and New Mexico. 
Great leaders of the country then as now were opposed to e.xpansion. . Men whose 
names will ever live in the history of our country as noble patriots and broad- 
minded statesmen then as now believed that the enlargement of our national 
domain and the expansion of our national sovereignty were fraught with the gravest 
of danger. But the discussion was not carried on so coolly then as now. The 
opposition was more determined and more embittered. In the minds of the oppo- 
nents at that time the dangers were even more clearly seen (apparently) than they 
seem to be now. 

"To no man who ever has sat in the Congress of the United States do the people 
of our country owe a greater debt of gratitude than to the distinguished Senator 
from Massachusetts, who opposed with all his wonderful might and splendid 
mind the acquisition of California and New Mexico. Permit me to call your 



G58 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

attention to a few of the expressions used by ihe great Daniel Webster, the de- 
fender of the Constitution, concerning the admission of Texas and the acquisition 
of Xew Mexico and California: 

" 'The Government is verj' likely to be endangered, in my opinion, by a further 
enlargement of the territorial surface, already so vast, over which it is extended.' 

"And again he said, referring to the same subject: 

" 'I say, sir, that, according to my conscientious conviction, we are now fixing 
on the Constitution of the United States and its frame of government a mon- 
strosity, a disfiguration, an enormity. 

" 'Sir, I hardly dare trust myself. I do not know but I may be under some 
delusion. It may be the weakness of my eye that forms this monstrous apparition. 
I hold it to be enormous, flagrant, an outrage .upon all the principles of popular 
republican government, and on the elementary provisions of the Constitution under, 
which we live and which we have sworn to support. * * * i thiuk I see a course 
adopted which is likely to turn the Constitution of tlie land into a deformed 
monster, into a curse rather than a blessing. * * * And I think that this process 
will go on, or that there is danger that it will go on, until this Union shall fall 
to pieces. I resist it to-day and always. Whoever falters or whoever flies, I con- 
tinue the contest." 

"And again he said: 

" 'On other occasions in debate here I have expressed my determination to 
vote for no acquisition or cession or annexation north or south, east or west. My 
opinion has been thdt we have territory enough, and that we should follow the 
Spartan maxim, "Improve, adorn what you have;" seek no further. * * * There 
may be in California, and no doubt there are, some tracts of valuable land. But 
it is not so in Xew Mexico. * * * There are some narrow strips of tillable land 
on the borders of the rivers, but the rivers themselves dry up before midsummer 
is gone. All that the people can do in that region is to raise some little articles, 
some little wheat for their tortillas, and that by irrigation." 

"I particularly commend the speech of Webster to the distinguished gentle- 
man who represents on the floor of the House the Tcrritorj- of Arizona, a part of 
the X'ew ^Mexico to whidi Mr. Webster referred. That gentleman is known as a 
bitter opponent of expansion. He opposed with all his might the annexation of 
the Hawaiian Islands. But Webster in his speech said that there might be some 
excuse for annexing the Hawaiian Islands, but he could see no possible excuse 
for taking in such a barren territory as he said Arizona was, from which the gen- 
tleman comes, and which he so well represents; 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPAXSIOX. 659 

"The Senator from ilassachiisetts has been reversed by history. He did not 
see aright the signs of the times as to expansion. If Daniel Webster were now 
alive, he M'onld be the last man in the Eepublic to admit that this country could 
afford to lose a single foot of the territory embraced in the cession from Mexico 
in 1848. He would be the quickest to admit that the acquisition of that territory 
has done much to cement the Union into closer unity; has done much to knit 
more tightly the bands which hold our country together; that the sunny land on 
the other side of the Eocky Mountains, which was so far away in 1848, and which, 
through the genius of our citizenship, has been brought into close and quick touch 
with the rest of the Union, has made our whole country feel that distance no 
longer separates the utmost parts from quick communication with the Central 
Government, which responds constantly to every feeling of danger or joy, of poverty 
or prosperity, in every part of our domain. 

"Following the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, we entered into another treaty 
with Mexico December 30, 18.53, under the administration of President Pierce, by 
which we purchased from Mexico a strip of land known as the Mesilla Valley, lying 
in the southern parts of Xew Mexico and Arizona, and embracing an area of 45,535 
square miles, for which we paid to Mexico $10,000,000. 

"This treaty was negotiated on the part of the Union by Jlr. James Gadsden, 
our minister to Mexico, and is usually referred to as the Gadsden purchase. This 
purchase was intended partly for the purpose of aiding in the settlement of a 
difference between the two countries as to the boundary line of the previous cession, 
but more for the purpose of showing the kindly feeling of our country to the Gov- 
ernment in Mexico. The tract of land acquired by the purchase is probably worth 
less and cost more per square mile than any other territory ever acquired by our 
Government. 

"DEMOCEATIC PRESIDENTS OX EXPAXSIOX. 

"All of the annexations to our country since the adoption of the Constitution 
up to the time of the Gadsden purchase had been under Democratic administrations. 
Maj' I ask the gentlemen on the Democratic side of the House to consider for a 
moment the names of those who were connected with the administrations acquir- 
ing new territory for the expansion of our domain and sovereignty: President 
Thomas Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison, afterwards President; 
President James Monroe, who negotiated the treaty with France, and under whose 
administration Florida was acquired; President Andrew Jackson, who, while a gen- 



660 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION'. 

eral in the army, had taken possession of Florida without orders and without 
regard to the rights of Spain; President Tyler, President Polk and his Secretary 
of State, James Buchanan, afterwards President, and President Pierce. 

"These are the men who were at the head of our Government during nearly 
all the time when the Democratic party has been in power in our Government. 
And permit me to say that in no case and upon no occasion did a single one of 
these great men ever propose to consult the wishes of the inhabitants in the new 
territory, except in the case of Texas. 

"They were the men who determined the historic policy of our country. It 
was their ambition and their desire to add to the other acquisitions of this country 
the island which we have Just freed from the oppression of Spain. They believed 
not only that we had the right to add new territory to our country between the 
oceans and to govern it according to the dictates of the best judgment of Con- 
gress, unrestricted by the limitations of the Constitution, but they believed also 
in reaching across the water and taking in the Island of Cuba. 

'"Let me recall to your attention what has been done in the way of the 
acquisition of new territory during these Democratic administrations. 

"The Louisiana purchase added to our territory 1,182,752 square miles, at an 
expense of 3| cents per acre. The Florida purchase added 59,268 square miles, 
at an expense of 17 cents per acre. The annexation of Texas added to our area 
371,063 square miles, of which 274,356 square miles is included within the present 
State of Texas, and of which 96,707, lying outside of the limits of the present 
State of Texas, were jjurchased from Texas by the National Government in 1850, 
at an expense of $16,000,000, or 26 cents per acre. 

"The cession from Mexico in 18-18 contained 522,568 square miles, which cost 
4^ cents per acre. The Gadsden purchase of 45,535 square miles was acquired 
at a cost of 34 cents per acre. 

"THE ALASKA PURCHASE. 

"The first duty of the Republican party was not to add new territory, but save 
to the country a portion of the old. Without regard to the doctrine that the just 
powers of government depend upon the consent of the governed, the Xational 
Government determined, by the issue of war, that neither the individual States 
nor a concerted movement of the Southern States or their people were entitled 
to separate themselves from our national sovereignty and organize a government 
apart from us for themselves. The right of revolution, asserted by the Dcclara- 



THE HISTOKY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 6G1 

tion of Independence successfully, was again asserted by the Southern Confederacy, 
but this time A\ithout success. 

"It was not long, however, after the Civil War until under the administration . 
of President Johnson, by the treaty made March 30, 18G7, at Washington, by Sec- 
retary of State William H. Seward, in behalf of his country, the United States 
acquired the cession from Eussia of all her possessions on the continent of America 
and adjacent islands, which we now refer to as Alaska. 

'"The Alaska purchase added 577,390 square miles to the area of our country, 
at a cost of $7,200,000. 

'"The territory acquired by this purchase has, up to the present time, been 
governed without any local Legislature and wholly by direction and under the 
control of Congress. And, though its government may not have been excellent, 
it probably has been much better than it would have been if conducted by a local 
Legislature elected in that sparsely settled territory. 

''The power of Congress to give a fitting character to the particular legisla- 
tion enacted for the special government of Alaska has seldom, if ever, been ques- 
tioned, and has invariably, I believe, been exercised whenever Congress has seen fit. 

"OPINIONS OF LAW WRITERS. 

"I have referred to some of the events in history concerning annexation, and 
to the opinions of some of the men who had much to do with the Republic and 
its policies in its early days. Permit me to call attention to a few legal opinions. 
Probably the two greatest writers of our country upon legal subjects have been 
Chancellor Kent and Judge Story. The Commentaries of one and text-books by 
the other are studied by every law college in our land. These men speak with 
authority equal to that of learned judges in deciding cases of grave importance. 

"Chancellor Kent, in referring to the various acts of Congress in relation to 
the organization and government of the various Territories under the provision of 
the Constitution, empowering Congress 'to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the LTnited 
States,' said: 

" 'It would seem from these various Congressional regulations of the Terri- 
tories belonging to the United States that Congress have supreme power in the 
government of them, depending on the exercise of their sound discretion. That 
discretion has hitherto been exercised in wisdom and good faith and with an 
anxious regard for the security of the rights and privileges of the inhabitants, 



C62 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPAX'SIOX. 

as defined and declared in the ordinance of July, ITST, and in the Constitution 
of the United States. 

"' ' "All admit/" said Chief Justice Marshall, "the constitutionality of a Ter- 
ritorial government." But neither the District of Columbia nor a Territory is 
a State within the meaning of the Constitution or entitled to claim the privileges 
secured to the members of the Union. This has been so adjudged by the Supreme 
Court. Xor will a writ of error or appeal lie from a Territorial court to the 
Supreme Court unless there be a special statute provision for the purpose. If, 
therefore, the Government of the United States should carry into execution the 
project of colonizing the great valley of the Columbia or Oregon River to the 
west of the Rocky Mountains, it would afford a subject of grave consideration 
what would be the future civil and political destiny of that country. 

" It would be a long time before it would be populous enough to be created 
into one or more independent States, and in the meantime, upon the doctrine 
taught by the acts of Congress, and even by the judicial decisions of the Supreme 
Court, the colonists would be in a state of the most complete subordination and 
as dependent upon the will of Congress as the people of this country would have 
been upon the King and Parliament of Great Britain if they could have sustained 
their claim to bind us in all cases whatsoever. (Kent's Commentaries, Volume I, 
page 385.' 

"While Judge Story, in his work on constitutional law, said: 

" 'The power of Congress over the public territory is clearly exclusive and 
universal, and their legislation is subject to no control, but is absolute and unlim- 
ited, imless so far as it is affected by stipulations in the cessions or by the ordinance 
of 1TS7, under which any part of it has been settled. (Story on the Constitution, 
section 1328).' 

"Story also said: 

" 'What shall be the form of government established in the Territories depends 
exclusively upon the discretion of Congress. Having a right to erect a Territorial 
government, they may confer on it such powers — legislative, judicial, and execu- 
tive — as they may deem best. (Storj- on the Constitution, section 132-5.)' 

"That these distingmshed jurists and authors thoroughly understood the 
absolute and broad opinion of the power of Congress as thus expressed by them is 
shown by the statement of Chancellor Kent in expressing the following opinion 
concerning the danger of the despotic power thus conferred upon Congress, to wit: 

" 'Such a state of absolute sovereignty on the one hand and of absolute 
dependence on the other is not congenial with the free and independent spirit 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 663 

of our native institutions; and the establishment of distant Territorial governments, 
ruled according to will and pleasure, would have a very natural tendency, as all 
proconsular governments have had, to abuse and oppression. (Kent's Commen- 
taries, Volume I, page 385.)' 

"And Judge Story, in his work, refers to this opinion of Chancellor Kent. 
The opinion of Chancellor Kent that such a despotic power was a dangerous one 
is not, of course, a legal opinion. That is purely a matter of policy and not a 
matter of legal construction. The opinions of Chancellor Kent and Judge Story are 
entitled to the greatest weight so far as they refer to matters of constitutional 
law. Kent's opinion as to the propriety of such a despotic power has no greater 
weight than the opinion of many persons unlearned in the law, but the fact that 
he called attention to the dangers which might arise from the exercise of such 
absolute sovereignty and power by Congress shows conclusivelj' that when he ex- 
pressed his legal opinion that Congress had such authority, he was fully convinced 
that the power granted by the Constitution was broad, full, and absolute in its 
character. 

'T)ECISIOXS OF THE SUPREME COURT. 

"Mr. Chairman, it is proper to say that the decisions of the United States 
Supreme Court in reference to the power of Congress over the Territories of the 
United States are somewhat conflicting and contradictory in character, but there 
is no decision of the Supreme Court denying such authority to Congress. Let me 
refer briefly to some of the cases decided by the Supreme Court. 

'T!n the case of The American Insurance Company vs. Canter (1 Peters, 517), 
relating to the acquisition of Florida, Mr. Justice Johnson, in deciding the case 
on the circuit, said: 

" 'The right, therefore, of acquiring territory is altogether incidental to the 
treaty-making power, and, perhaps, to the power of admitting new States into 
the Union, and the government of such acquisitions is, of course, left to the 
legislative power of the Union so far as that power is uncontrolled by treaty. By 
the latter (treaty) we acquire either positively or sub modo, and by the former 
(legislative power) dispose of acquisitions so made, and in case of such acquisitions 
I see nothing in which the power acquired over the ceded territories can varv from 
the power acquired under the law of nations by any other Government over acquired 
or ceded territory.' 

"Mr. Justice Johnson's decision was affirmed in January, 1828, by the Supreme 
Court (The American Insurance Company vs. Canter, 1 Peters, 541), the opinion 



664 THE HISTOBY OF AiFERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

being delivered by Chief Justice Marshall, who said (referriBg to the Florida treaty 
of cession): 

■' 'This treaty is the law of the land, and admits the inhabitants of Florida 
to the enjoyment of the privileges, rights, and immuniries of the citizens of the 
fnited States. It is unnecessary to inquire whether this is not their condition 
independent of stipulanon. They do not, however, participate in political power; 
they do not share in the government till Florida shall become a State. In the 
meantime Florida continues to be a Territorj- of the United States, governed by 
virtue of that clause in the Constitution which empowers Congress "to make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the Tnited States. •■ * * * 

" 'The right to govern may be the inevitable consequence of the right to 
acquire territory. Whichever may be the source, whence the power is derived, 
the possession of it is unquestioned.' 

'"Tn Loughborough vs. Blake (5 Wheat., 31T) it was decided by the Supreme 
Court, the opinion being delivered by Chief Justice Marshall, that the provision 
in section 8 of Article I of the Constitution, giving the 'power to lay and collect 
taxes, dunes, imposts, and excises' extends to the District of Columbia; and the 
court expressed the opinion that such power extends to all places over which the 
Government extends, including the Territories. It is manifest, however, that it 
was not necessary to refer to the Constitution for such power, because, if the Con- 
stitution covered the Territories expressly, then the power would cover the Terri- 
tories; and if the Constiturion does not cover the Territories expressly, then the 
absolute authority of Congress would include the power given by that section of 
the Constitution. 

'Tn Fleming vs. Page (9 How., 617), decided in 1S50, the Supreme Court 
said: 

" 'After Florida had been ceded to the United States, and the forces of the 
United States had taken possession of Pensacola, it was decided by the Treasury 
Department that goods imported from Pensacola before an act of Congress was 
passed erecting it into a collection district and authorizing the appointment of a 
collector were liable to duty — that is, that although Florida had, by cession, actually 
become a part of the United States, and was in our possession, yet under our 
revenue laws its ports must be regarded as foreign until they were established- as 
domesric by act of Congress; and it appears that this decision was sanctioned 
at the lime by the Attorney-General of the United States, the law officer of the 
Government. 



THE HISTORY OF A:NrEEICAX EXPAXSIOX. 665 

" 'And, although not so directly applicable to the case before ns, yet the deci- 
sions of the Treasury Department ia relation to Amelia Island and certain ports 
in Louisiana were both made upon the same grounds, and in the latter case, after 
a custom-house had been established by law at Xew Orleans, the collector at that 
place was instructed to regard as foreign ports Baton Eouge and other settlements 
-still in the possession of Spain, whether on the Mississippi, Iberville, or the sea- 
coast. The Department in no instance that we are aware of since the establish- 
ment of the GoTemment has ever recognized a place in a newly acquired country 
as a domestic port from which the coasting trade might be carried on, imless it 
had been previously made so by act of Congress. 

" The principle thus adopted and acted upon by the executive department 
of the Government has been sanctioned by the decisions in this court and the 
circuit courts whenever the question came before them. We do not propose to 
com m ent upon the different cases cited in the argument. It is sufficient to say 
there is no discrepancy between them. And all of them, so far as they apply, 
maintain that under our revenue laws every port is regarded as a foreign one 
unless the custom-house from which the vessel clears is within a collection district 
established by act of Congress and the officers granting the clearance exercise 
their functions under the authority and control of the laws of the United States.' 

'TDaniel Webster, in his argimient before the Supreme Court in the fore- 
going case of Fleming vs. Page (9 Howard, 612), stated: 

" 'That there was a difference between the Territories and other parts of the 
United States. Judges were there appointed for terms of years, which the Con- 
stitution forbade as to other parts of the country. Hence the part of the Consti- 
tution which directs that duties must be equal in all the ports of the United States 
does not apply to Territories.' 

"And ia discussing the biU to organize a government for the Territory of 
Oregon, Daniel Webster said, in the-Senate of the United States, August 12, 1848: 

" 'The question now is, whether it is not competent to Congress, lq the exer- 
cise of a fair and just discretion, considering that there have been five slave- 
holding States added to this Union out of foreign acquisitions, and as yet only 
one free State, to prevent their further increase. That is the question. I see no 
injustice in it. As to the power of Congress I have nothing to add to what I said 
the other day. Congress has fuU power over the subject. It may establish any 
such government and any such laws in the Territories as in its discretion it 
may see fit. It is subject, of course, to the rules of justice and propriety, but it 
is under no constitutional restraints.' 



GG6 THE HISTOEY OF AMERICAN EXPAXSIOX. 

"The case of Cross vs. Harrison (IG Howard, 1G4) refers to the condition of 
California between the time when the treaty of peace of Guadalupe Hidalgo was 
signed, on February 3, 1848, and the time when a collector of customs at San 
Francisco entered upon the duties of his office, in the latter part of 1849, by 
appointment by the President under an act of Congress creating California into 
a customs district. 

"At the time the treaty of peace was signed, in March, 1848, California was 
in possession of the military branch of our Government, and military officers were 
collecting customs. Xotice of the ratification of the treaty did not reach the mili- 
tary officers in California until some time after the middle of the year 1848. 
WTien such notice did reach the military authorities in California they received 
no instructions from the Government regarding the course they should pursue. 
They thereupon, by military order, provided that the duties to be paid on imports 
at San Francisco should thereafter be the same as provided by law for the United 
States. 

"In the early part of 1849 an act of Congress was passed creating California 
into a customs district, with the port at San Francisco, but it was not until the 
latter part of 1849 that a collector, appointed by the President, entered upon the 
discharge of his duties. Persons who had paid duties on imports into California 
between the date of the signing of the treaty and the date of the creation of 
California into a customs district, as well as between the latter date and the date 
when the collector of customs qualified, under written protest, urged that the col- 
lection of duties by the military authorities after the date of the signing of the 
treaty and its ratification was illegal and unlawful. 

"The Supreme Court held that the military authorities had the right to keep 
in force the rate of duties previously fixed by military order up to the time when, 
by further military order, a different rate was put in force equal to the rate fixed 
by law in the United States, and then had authority to collect the duties as fixed 
liy the new military order up to the time when a collector was appointed and 
qualified under an act of Congress creating the territory into a customs district 
and fixing a port of entry. In the course of the argument in the opinion sustain- 
ing the proceedings taken by the military government of California, the court 
uses several expressions indicating that the tariff laws of the United States might 
be considered as extended over the newly acquired territory by virtue of the ratifi- 
cation of the treaty. 

"For instance, Justice Wayne, in denying the right of the importers to land 
goods at San Francisco free of duty between the time of the ratification of the 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAN EXPANSION. 667 

treaty and tlie time when a collector of customs was qualified to act, states that 
to permit this would be — • 

" 'a violation of that provision of the Constitution which enjoins that "all duties, 
imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States." Indeed, 
it must be clear that no such right exists and that there was nothing in the condi- 
tion of California to exempt importers of foreign goods into it from the payment 
of the same duties which were chargeable in the other ports of the United States.' 

"Such expressions of opinion as this one were not necessary to the decision of 
the case which was reached by the court, and, though entitled to considerable 
weight upon that side of the question, are not to be taken as expressing the con- 
sidered decision of the Supreme Court upon a question of such vast importance as 
the one we are now discussing, and a decision of which was not required in the case 
before the court. 

"I crave indulgence to refer to a few more recent decisions of the Supreme 
Court. I do not think it is necessary for us to pay much attention to the Dred 
Scott case. After the lapse of a generation, during which that case was only 
referred to for the purpose of pointing at it with the finger of scorn, the gentle- 
men on the other side of the House now begin to bring it out to fortify their 
position upon the subject of territorial expansion. 

"Let us not forget that the whole point involved in the Dred Scott case was 
the question of the extension of slavery. There was then going on in our country, 
as there had been from the time of the foundation of the Eepublic, that wonderful 
conflict of interest and ideas concerning the extension or restriction of slavery. 
It became necessary for the party which was then in control of the Government 
to take the position that the United States had no right to exclude slaves from any 
of the territory of the United States. For years the people of our country had 
acquiesced in the idea embodied in the Jlissouri compromise. There was to be and 
was a line north of which slavery should not exist and south of which slavery 
should not be interfered with. 

"The anti-slavery sentiment was not only becoming stronger in the hearts of 
the people of our country, but the numbers who expressed its ideas were becom- 
ing greater with the growth of the free States. To continue to keep out slavery 
north of the Missouri compromise line meant the admission of free States which 
would send to Congress Eepresentatives and Senators opposed to slavery, so that 
the so-called balance of power between the slave and the free States would be 
destroyed and the free States would have a majority control of the Government. 

"In the minds of the keenest thinkers and leaders for the slavery party there 



(>(i8 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSIOX. 

was but one way in wliicli to obviate the impending doom of slavery, and that 
was to secure a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States holding that 
under the Constitution the Government could not interfere with the right of a 
citizen to take his slave or other property into any part of our Territories over 
which the Constitution was effective, and to hold that the Territories were covered 
liy the provisions of the Constitution and guaranteed such right. It became 
necessary, in the development of this carefully laid scheme, for the Supreme Court 
to decide that the Territories of the United States were covered and protected by 
the guaranties in the Constitution, and that negro slaves might be carried by their 
masters into and kept in any of these Territories. 

"Every line of Uie decision by Chief Justice Taney was written for the pur- 
pose, and solely for the purpose, of effecting the result of permitting slaveholding 
in any and all of the Territories of the United States. That decision was blotted 
over by the blood of both North and South. It is not a decision of the Supreme 
Court of the United States. It was a decision demanded and received by the 
slaveholding power of the Southern States. With the passing of that slaveholding 
power as a result of civil war the decision of the court in the Dred Scott case also 
passed forever. 

"In Murphy vs. Ramsey (114 U. S., 4-1), relating to the Territory of Utah, 
Mr. Justice Matthews, delivering the opinion of the court, said: 

" 'It rests with Congress to say whether in a given case any of the people 
resident in the Territory shall participate in the election of its officers or the 
making of its laws; and it may, therefore, take from them any right of suffrage 
it may previously have conferred or at any time modify or abridge it as it may 
deem expedient. * * * 

" 'Their political rights arc franchises which they hold as privileges in the 
legislative discretion of the Congress of the United States.' 

"And in the case of Mormon Church vs. United States (136 U. S. Reports, 42) 
^Ir. Justice Bradley, delivering the opinion of the court, said: 

" 'The power of Congress over the Territories of the United States is general 
and plenary, arising from and incidental to the right to acquire the Territory 
itself, and from the power given by the Constitution to make all needful rules and 
regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United 
States. It would be absurd to hold that the United States has power to acquire 
territory and no power to. govern it when acquired. * * * The power to make 
acquisitions of territory by conquest, by treaty, and by cession is an incident of 
national sovereignty. 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. C6;> 

" 'The Territory of Louisiuna, wliun acquired from Frauce, and the Territories 
•nest of the Rocky Mountains, when acquired from Mexico, became the absolute 
jn-operty and domain of the United States, subject to such conditions as the Gov- 
ernment in its diplomatic negotiations has seen fit to accept relating to the rights 
of people then inhabiting these Territories. * * * Doubtless Congress in legis- 
lating for the Territories would be subject to those fundamental limitations in 
favor of personal rights which are formulated ii- the Constitution and its amend- 
ments; but these limitations would exist rather by inference and the general 
spirit of the Constitution, from which Congress derives all its power, than by any 
express and direct application of its provisions.' 

"I wish to call particular attention to three recent cases decided by the 
Supreme Court of the T'nited States, because they have been so often referred 
to in the recent discussion of the question. 

"In the case of American Publishing Company vs. Fisher (1(16 U. S., -iG-i) the 
question was whether litigants at common law in Utah while it remained a Terri- 
tory had a right to trial Ijy jury requiring unanimity for a verdict. 

"The Supreme Court, by Mr. Justice Brewer, said: 

" 'Whether the seventh amendment to the Constitvttion of the United States, 
which provides that "in suits at common law where the value in controversy shall 
exceed $20 the right of trial by jury shall be preserved," operates ex proprio vigore 
to invalidate this statute, may be a matter of dispute. * * * 

" 'But if the seventh amendment does not operate in and of itself to invalidate 
this Territorial statute, then Congress has full control over tlie Territories irre- 
spective of any express constitutional limitations, and it has legislated in respect 
to this matter. In the first place, in the act to establish a Territorial form of 
government for Utah, act of September 9, 1850 (G. 51, section 17, 9 Statutes, -153, 
458) it enacted "that the Constitution and laws of the United States are hereby 
extended over and declared to be in force in said Territory of Utah, so far as the 
same, or any provision thereof, may be applicable." A subsequent statute has more 
specific reference to jury trials. * * * 

" 'Therefore, either the seventh amendment to the Constitution, or these acts 
of Congress, or all together, secured to every litigant in a common-law action in 
the courts of the Territory of Utah the right to a trial by jury, and nullified any 
act of its Legislature which attempted to take from him anything which is of the 
substance of that right.' 

"It will be noted that in the above case the Supreme Court expressly declines 
to say that the Constitution and the seventh amendment thereof were in opera- 



670 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 

tion in the Territory of Utah irrespective of the legislation of Congress. The 
Supreme Court in that case leaves the matter open as one which is not determined. 
The language of the court is that whether the seventh amendment to the Con- 
stitution is, by virtue of the Constitution, extended over the Territories 'may be 
a matter of dispute.'" I call especial attention to this language and this state- 
ment of the court because of the opinions in two cases which followed it, and 
which two cases are now claimed as authority for the proposition that the Con- 
stitution, by its own virtue, extends itself over new territory acquired by our 
Government. 

"The Fisher case, just cited, was decided by the Supreme Court April 12, 
1897. A few days thereafter, on April 26, 1897, the Supreme Court decided 
the case of Springville vs. Thomas (166 U. S., 707). The opinion in the latter 
case is about one page long. The question involved was precisely the same as in 
American Publishing Company vs. Fisher, and, naturally, the judgment of the 
court was the same. But in delivering the opinion of the court Mr. Chief Justice 
Fuller said: 

"'In these three cases judgments were entered on verdicts returned by less, 
than tlic whole number of jurors by wliich they were tried. It has been decided 
by this court that the Territorial act of March 10, 1892, permitting this to be 
done * * * ^as invalid, because in contravention of the seventh amendment 
to the Constitution and the act of Congress of .Vpril 7, 187Jr. * * * (American 
Publishing Company vs. Fisher, ante, 464.) * * * 

" 'The Supreme Court of the Territory held * * * that the act of Con- 
gress of September 9, 1850, * * * the organic act of the Territorj', vested in 
the Territorial Legislature such unlimited legislative power as enabled it to pro- 
vide that tmanimity of action on the part of jurors in civil cases was not necessary 
to a valid verdict. * * * 

" 'In our opinion the seventh amendment secured unanimity in finding a 
verdict as an essential feature of trial by jury in common-law cases, and the act of 
Congress could not import the power to change the constitutional rule, and could 
not be treated as attempting to do so.' 

"It will be noted that in American Publishing Company vs. Fisher the 
Supreme Court called attention to the fact that in the act passed by Congress 
to establish a Territorial form of government for Utah it was expressly enacted 
that the Constitution of the United States was thereby extended over the said 
Territory so far as applicable; and the court held in that case that by virtue 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. GTl 

of this provision in the act of Congress the seventh amendment of the Consti- 
tution became in force in Utah if it had not been so previously. 

"It seems v.ery unliliely that the Supreme Court, which on April 12, 1897, 
had stated that it was still a matter of dispiute whether the Constitution extended 
itself over newly acquired territory and declined in that case to settle the dispute, 
should on April 2G, 1897, in an appeal involving precisely the same question, have 
intended, in a one-page decision and by four or five lines of an opinion, to decide 
this great constitutional question. 

"It is admitted that the seventh amendment of the Constitution was in force 
in the Territory of Utah and governed the decision in the case, because the act of 
Congress organizing the Territory of Utah so provided. But the statement in 
the opinion that an 'act of Congress could not import the power to change the 
constitutional rule' was entirely unnecessary for a decision of the case, and can 
hardly l.e held sufficient authority for the determination of a great constitutional 
question which, two weeks before, had expressly been left undecided by the Supreme 
Court. 

"The case of Thompson vs. Utah (170 U. S., 343, 346) was another case 
involving trials by jury in the Territory of Utah. The opinion of the court was 
delivered by Mr. Justice Harlan, one of the most distinguished jurists of our 
country. An opinion by such a judge, carefully considered, would be entitled 
to great weight. But in this case the decision is simply based upon the authority 
of the two cases which I have just referred to. 

"In the opinion Mr. Justice Harlan 'said: 

" 'That the provisions of the Constitution of the United States relating to 
the right of trial by jury in suits at common law apply to the Territories of the 
United States is no longer an open question. (Webster vs. Reid, 11 How., 437, 
460; American Publishing Company vs. Fisher, 166 U. S., 464, 468; Springville vs. 
Thomas, 166 U. S., 707.)' 

"And then, after specially referring to the last above-cited case, it is added: 

" 'It is equally beyond question that the provisions of the National Consti- 
tution relating to trials by jury for crimes and to criminal prosecutions apply to 
the Territories of the United States.' 

"This case is decided upon the authority of the Thomas case above, and that 
case was decided upon the authority of the American Publishing Company case, 
and that case expressly left the question open and undecided. 

"Here is no pretense of giving consideration or particular thought to the grave 
constitutional question which, by the language of the opinion, is apparently dis- 



672 THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 

posed of ofifhand. The judgment of the Supreme Court was undoubtedly correct, 
but it was correct because the act of Congress had extended the Constitution over 
the Territory of Utali. The court was not required to determine whether the pro- 
visions of the Constitution apply to the Territories without regard to Congressional 
action. No conclusion was reasoned out, and apparently no consideration given to 
the opinion, except to find that it was governed by the cases which I have referred 
to. Those cases did not decide that the Constitution of itself extends itself to 
the Territories, and in the first case, American Publishing Co. vs. Fisher, that 
question is expressly left open and undecided. 

"While it is unfortunate that the Supreme Court of the United Spates should 
have been led into carelessly expressing an inconsiderate opinion — that the Con- 
stitution is, by its own virtue, extended over all Territories acquired by the 
United States — still it is not a matter of grave importance. The Supreme Court, 
composed, as it now is and as it probably ever will be, of judges of high 
character, great learning, patriotic impulses, and without the stubborn pride of 
opinion, will readily give to this question, when it shall properly arise before 
them, a new, comjjlete, and unbiased consideration, and the result of that con- 
sideration can hardly be a matter of much doubt. 

"The Supreme Court has consistently held from the beginning that the pro- 
visions of the Constitution in relation to the character of the courts and the life 
tenure of judges did not apply to the courts created by acts of Congress in the 
Territories. Such a conclusion could only have been reached by the holding that 
the Constitution did not apply of its own virtue to the Territories. 

"The history of the country which I have cited, the history of the various 
annexations of new territory, the history of the government of the Territories by 
Congress, all show that the Constitution of the United States, in its general limita- 
tions and provisions, does not ajiply to or in the Territories. In one sense the Con- 
stitution extends over the Territories because of the constitutional provision that 
Congress shall have authority to make rules and regulations for the government 
thereof. But the other provisions, limiting the authority of Congress, has no 
application to the Territories, which are the common property of all of the States. 

"It has been recently claimed on the floor of the House and elsewhere that 
if we annex the Philippine Islands we shall have no right or power under the 
Constitution to prevent the children of the present inhabitants of the Philip- 
pines from coming to our country and its capital when and how and as often 
as they please. And this contention has been based upon seme decisions of the 



THE HISTORY OF AMEEICAX EXPANSION. 673 

court and upon section 1 of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution, which 
provides that — 

" 'All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the 
jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein 
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the 
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State 
deprive any person of life, liberty, or property; without due process of law, nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law.' 

"I am aware of the learned decisions which have been made by our Supreme 
Court, based upon this amendment; but I call attention to an exception not 
provided for by the amendment, but which is recognized by every one familiar 
with the actual facts. The provision is that 'all persons born or naturalized in 
the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States.' 

"The jurisdiction of the United States extends to every person within its 
limits except the representatives here of foreign governments. I am aware that 
in a certain sense we treat various Indian tribes as foreign powers; but after 
all we undertake by legislation to control their actions, and our jurisdiction is ex- 
tended over them; and yet no one pretends that under the fourteenth amend- 
ment of the Constitution or any other provision of the Constitution that the 
members of an Indian tribe, living in the tribal relation, can at his own sweet yill 
have the power to leave the reservation upon which our Government places him 
and hie himself off to the capital of the country. AVe deal with but we also legis- 
late for the Indian tribes. Sometimes we deal with them by treaty, sometimes 
without; but there is not a single foot of land in our country, occupied by or 
belonging to Indian tribes, over which our country does not claim the right of 
government and the right of jurisdiction as against a foreign power. 

"The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution has never been held to 
apply to the Indian tribes. We had dealt with the Indians for years before the 
fourteenth amendment was adopted. The custom of our country in dealing with 
the Indian tribes was well understood. The debates in Congress and in the 
various State Legislatures show that it was not the intention by the fourteenth 
amendment to change the relations between the General Government and the 
Indian tribes, and hence it is held that that amendment does not apply to such 
tribes. It can and will be as easy for the courts to hold that the fourteenth 
amendment was not intended to apply and does not apply to any tribes or settle- 
ments or other inhabitants of the Philippine Islands. 



€74 THE HISTOEY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

"My position is that when the ratifications of the treaty shall have been 
exchanged and our country shall have acquired from Spain her title of sovereignty 
over the Philippine Islands we shall hold them as a cpmmon possession, province, 
colony, Territory, or whatever it may be called, belonging to the States which, in 
their confederate capacity, constitute the national I'nion. We may deal with 
and govern these new possessions as we please, unrestricted except by our intelli- 
, gent ideas of humanity, civilization, liberty, and good government. We shall 
have the authority, if we wish, to sell the Philippines, because they have not 
become liy the treaty a constituent part of our country. 

"We may exchange them if that is desirable. We may govern them with 
a government absolutely despotic in its character, or we may give to them such 
form of local self-government as will appeal to our best judgment, as will be 
in line with the history of our country, as will tend to educate the inhabitants 
of those islands for more complete government by themselves. The mere fact 
that we may have absolute and autocratic power is no reason against our taking 
the islands. Within its constitutional limits the power of Congress is already 
autocratic and despotic. Within their constitutional limits the powers of the 
different officers of our country are autocratic and despotic. We rely somewhat 
upon the good judgment of the men who are elected to office, and we also rely 
iipon the right of the peo})le, in their discretion to correct an exercise of ill judg- 
ment by electing other and different officials. 

"EXPANSION HAS PROVEN BENEFICIAL. 

"Shall we shrink from the problems which are thus thrust upon us? Shall 
we attempt to shift the burden from our shoulders for fear we may not be strong 
enough tn bear it? Shall a nation which in a century and a quarter of time has 
increased its area from 400,000 to 4,000,000 square miles be now afraid of one more 
addition? 

'•Why, when, thi-nugh the daring courage and the wonderful campaign of 
George Rogers Clark and his little band of less than 200 men, the British pos- 
sessions in the Mississippi Valley were captured for the State of Virginia and the 
new Confederacy of States, the Continental Congress at once claimed that the 
empire thus gained, lying east of the ^lississippi, should never be relinquished; and 
when the treaty of peace with Great Britain was signed in 1783, the territorial 
extent of the revolting colonies had already licen nearly doubled. 

"The Revolutionary ]iatriots of that day, while they may have had doubts 



THE HISTOIJY OF AMKKiCAX EXPANSION. 675 

about the future, while they were more afraid of a strong central government 
than vre are now, while they could not even imagine the splendid triumphs which 
human genius would accomplish — welding together into a solid whole the scat- 
tered parts of a great empire — never faltered in their daring to believe that the 
empire which had been won by the gallantry and hardships of their soldiers, should 
remain a possession of their country. 

"From that day to this no generation has come and gone without adding 
to the extent of our national territory. And who can wonder? Does the history 
of the past count for nothing? Did the pilgrim fathers and mothers leave their 
homes and cross a trackless sea and settle on almost barren soil, in an inhospitable 
clime, in the midst of savage Indians, in order that their descendants should 
be frightened Ijy tlie imsolved problems of an enlarging nation? Were there 
no trials and tribulations in the life and death of the early settlers who planted 
the fringe of States along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia? 

"Were their problems less hard to solve than the problems which now con- 
front us? Were the dangers which threatened them less fearful than the dangers 
which we may see as possible before us? Have we forgotten the losses which they 
suffered, the savage foes which they encountered, and the splendor of their 
achievements which overcame the obstacles of the wilderness in a new land, which 
defied the terrors of bloody border warfare, and which set iip a new and inde- 
pendent government against the arms and power of the English throne? 

"Xo doubt when the early settlers left their homes in Europe to cross the 
Atlantic there were croakers and doubters who despaired of the successful ending 
of these new ventures. No doubt there were conservatives who pleaded terrors 
to be encormtered and urged the certainty of failure; but lives there a man to-day 
so mean in spirit and so small in daring that he regrets the sailing of the Pilgrims 
for our shore? Unfortimately there be some who have come to us now, while 
the flush of prosperity and peace and comfort mantles our land, who pour out 
their souls and cry out their eyes fearful lest we, too, may be imbued by some 
of the spirit of adventure and lilierty and gain which first brought the white race 
to build up this wonderful country and this noble Eepublic. 

"But the example of the early settlers has ever been an inspiration which gave 
to our people the hope, the heart, and the courage to accept the responsibilities of 
national growth and progressive expansion. 

"It was Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, 
who when President of the I'nitcd States, with James Madison, the historian of the 
Constitutional Convention, for his Secretary of State, and James Monroe, also a 



676 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 

President of the Tnited States, made the first and the greatest expansion of terri- 
tory after the adoption of our Constitution. There were doubters then. There 
were men then who feared and who trembled for the future of the Republic. There 
were pessimists in those days who did not believe that a republic could live with 
a domain so vast. 

"Jefferson jnit aside his conscientious scruples about a strict construction of 
the Constitution, and, rising equal to the emergency and the opportunity which 
had come, looked dimly through the years and faintly saw the wonderful progress 
to liberty and to the life of the young nation by adding the western bank of 
the Mississippi to our domain. 

"It was Daniel Webster, the greatest Senator who ever sat in the United 
States Senate from Massachusetts, if not from all the States, who, in 1848, saw 
lurking in the annexation of California the dissolution of our nation. 

"But again the will and the wish of the people were better and wiser than the 
foresight of the great Webster. Who would now blot out from our map the States 
of Ohio, Illinois, and others which were gained by the prowess and genius of George 
Rogers Clark? Who would now part with Iowa, with Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, 
and the other States which came to us through the Louisiana purchase made by 
Thomas Jefferson ? AVho would now yield up a foot of ground in Texas, which 
caused the Mexican war, or in California or in New Mexico, which were the result 
of that war? 

"We have suddenly learned that our nation has grown to the stature of full 
manhood. In the length of a year we have discovered that our nation is one 
of the great forces of government in the world; that it can not ^and idly by; that 
in the inevitable destiny of government it must move forward. Almost without 
knowing it, and certainly without previous full appreciation of it, we have become 
one of the greatest factors in tlie workTs commercial relations, which are so 
intricately interwoven and intertwined that no nation can now shirk the respon- 
sibilities of government which time or opportunity puts upon her. 

"Who does not know that dangerous problems and possibilities lie in the 
annexation of the Philippine Islands? Who did not know that dangers and prob- 
lems would come with the early settlements on our shores? Who did not know 
that dangers and problems would come with the Louisiana purchase? Who did 
not know that dangers and problems would come with the annexation of Texas and 
the acquisition of Mexican territory? Shall we fear where our fathers dared? 
Shall we doubt and stop where they faced destruction and death and went ahead? 
Do we think that because we have reached from ocean to ocean we can circum- 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION. 677 

scribe the sphere of our activity by the waters which border our present shores? 

"In 1803, when Jefferson made the Louisiana purchase, the exports from 
our country of all kinds were $55,000,000. In 1848, when we acquired California, 
tlie exports from our country were $138,000,000. Last year the exports were 
$1,255,000,000. Of our exports last year $981,000,000 went to Europe, $149,- 
000,000 went to other countries in North America, and $47,000,000 went to 
Asia. The exports last year from our country to Asia were nearly as large and 
the exports to Asia and Oceanica together were donsiderably larger than the total 
exports from our country when Jefferson purchased Louisiana, and yet tliey were 
a mere bagatelle compared either with the total exports from our country or the 
total importg-of Asia and Oceanica. 

"Who could foresee in 1803 that the exports from our country in less than 
a century of time would increase from $55,000,000 to $1,255,000,000? Who can 
read the future for us? In a century and a quarter our nation has spread from 
a mere coast line on the Atlantic until it has covered a continent, across to the 
Pacific Ocean. It is the ascendant nation on the Western Hemisphere. Shall 
it now stop its progressive growth because a few pessimists fear danger and a 
few partisans play politics? 

"When the century began it took six weeks to cross the Atlantic Ocean. Can 
you read into the future and tell how long it will take a hundred years from now 
to cross the Pacific ocean? When the Territory of Oregon was organized in 1848 
it took Governor Lane, the first governor of that Territory, more than six months 
to reach the mouth of the Columbia River. 

"But with the enlargement of our territorial extent came the enlarged genius 
of man, came the quickened wits of man, came the inspiration to greater deeds, 
to more splendid achievements in science, in mechanics, in arts. 

"Our country possesses to-day one-third of the railroad mileage of the world; 
more than one-half of the telegraph mileage. We have bounded into prosperity 
because we took up manfully the burdens which we assumed, and we attempted, 
like brave and daring men, the solution of the problems which we accepted. The 
civilization which has girdled the world is now reaching, with the hand of the 
American nation, across the waters of the Pacific to the land from which civiliza- 
tion started. The innate forces of human nature have decreed the opening of 
China and the Chinese Empire to the forces of modern genius and modern 
civilization. 

"In like manner as we have, by steady acquisition of territory, become the 



078 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPANSION. 

supreme leaders on the Western Continent, so we should become the supreme 
leaders on the Pacific Ocean. 

"When Webster negotiated the Ashburton treaty and settled our northwestern 
boundary line with Great Britain, we had a bare outlet on the Pacific Ocean. Since 
then we have acquired the coast line of California, the coast line of Alaska, and 
the Aleutian Islands, giving us the ascendant influence on the easterly and north- 
erly sides of that ocean. By the recent acquisition of the greatest strategic point 
in the Pacific, the Hawaiian Islands, we now need but a foothold of territory and 
friendly inhabitants on the other side to give us the supremacy for defense or 
offense for war or peace, for trade and commerce, in that greatest of bodies of 
water, which can not escape in the future from being the scene of a more splendid 
development than any yet attained in history. 

"Will it be said that we are taking the Philippine Islands against the wish 
of the inhabitants? Did the Continental Congress ask the consent of the inhab- 
itants of Kaskaskia and Vincennes? Did Thomas Jefferson and James Madison 
ask the consent of the inhabitants of Xew Orleans? Did James Monroe or Andrew 
Jackson ask the consent of the inhabitants of Pensacola and other points in Florida? 
Did President Polk ask the consent of the inhabitants of Santa Fe or of California? 
They did not doubt their ability to give to the inhabitants of those territories 
better government than they previously possessed. Do we doubt the ability of 
our country to give to the Filipinos better government than Spain has ever given 
them? 

"For a hundred years they have been weakly struggling for additional privi- 
leges and greater liberty. They have never succeeded; they were never on the 
point of success; they were disheartened and defeated imtil the greatest hero of 
our war steamed by the forts and into the bay at Manila. If they are fit for local 
self-government, can we not give it to them under our central Government? If 
they are unfitted now for local self-government, can we not give them better 
government than they have had and better government than they can maintain 
for themselves? Do we fear that we are making a departure if we inaugurate a 
colonial system of government for them? 

"Jefferson, who drafted the Declaration of Independence, who was the founder 
of the Democratic party, urged an amendment to the Constitution which would 
keep a part of the Louisiana purchase in the condition of a colony or a province. 

"Gouverneur Morris, who was the draftsman of the Constitution, believed that 
we not only had the right, but that it was our duty to govern all of the Louisiana 
purchase as a colony. The opposition to the Louisiana purchase in Congress in 



THE HISTOEY OF AMEKICAN EXPANSION. 07;) 

1803 denounced the treaty of purchase for the very reason, as they said, that it 
provided for the admission of the inhabitants of the annexed territory to equal 
rights and privileges with the citizens of our country, and they claimed that 
we only had the right to govern annexed territory as colonies. 

"We need not fear for the future. Our race surmounts the obstacles which 
it meets. The greater America has come, because it is for the mutual interest 
of those who take and of tliose who are taken. We shall not the less continue 
to solve the problems coming witli increased population in our local affairs. We 
shall not the less continue to preserve the independence of thought and liberty 
within the individual States and the General Government; but with the spread 
of our power, with the enlargement of our domain, we shall take loftier view of 
the affairs of men. We shall strive to mount to higher rounds; we shall enlarge 
the blessings of individual liberty; we shall increase the comforts of those who 
come under our influence; we shall take a step forward in the progress of enlight- 
ened liberty, civilization, and humanity. 

"And we would not dare to step backward. If we have not the genius and 
the statesmanship to give good government to the people of the Philippine Islands 
under the direction of our central Government, then we acknowledge that a repub- 
lican form of government is unequal to the emergency which confronts it and is 
less capable than would be the government of a monarchy. I deny it. We can 
give to the Philippine Islands, under some form of partial local government, more 
liberty, more enlightenment, more comforts, more privileges, more prosperity, more 
happiness than they have ever yet received — more than they ever would receive 
either under a government conducted wholly by themselves or some form of gov- 
ernment supplied for them by some European power. 

"Let men prate no longer about their tender solicitude for the inhabitants 
of those islands when they say we have no right to govern them against their 
will. No patriot who is a citizen of our country will honestly say he believes 
we can not give them better government than they have had or than they can 
give to and maintain for themselves alone. 

"It is the selfish side of the opponents of expansion which causes them to weep 
tears for the supposed injury to be done to the Filipinos. It is not because they 
love or care for the Filipinos; it is because they love and care for themselves only. 
They are thinking, not of the interests of the inhabitants on the other side of the 
world; they are thinking only of their pessimistic, dyspeptic fears of the future 
of our own land — fears which are not new, but are the ghosts of fears born in 
the human heart and mind thousands of years ago, and which ever since have 



680 THE HISTORY OF AMERICAX EXPAXSIOX. 

been stalking abroad, endeavoring to block the progress of the human race and 
of human government. 

"I do not know what the future will bring forth, but I do not believe that 
wisdom will die with the present generation. What has been accomplished during 
this century will be more than duplicated in the next. Let us not make the 
mistake of believing that the Asiatic people are naked savages or poverty-stricken 
barbarians. Over there one form of civilization has reached a higher plane than 
we have yet attained. Scholarship and learning are not wanting there. "Wealth 
and culture are found also there. Religion and philosophy will not be first taught 
by us to them. ,This wonderful people, which has isolated itself from the world 
since the dawn of what is to us ancient history, will shortly enter into competition 
and commerce with the rest of mankind. 

"The Chinese Empire, with its more than 4,000,000 square miles of territory, 
greater in extent than ours even with Alaska incUuled, with its 400,000,000 of 
population, with its form of civilization, will soon be opened to the world, whether 
we will it or not. Then there will meet across the Pacific seas, in active competi- 
tion, the two greatest intellectual forces of the world^the modern civilization of 
Europe and America and the ancient and modern civilization of China, ^^liat will 
restdt from the competition ensuing no one can foretell. It may be strife or it 
may be peace; it may result in a bloody warfare for final supremacy or it may 
excite the genius of mankind to a higher pitch than yet known, and produce a 
civilization, a prosperity, a comfort, a happiness, a means of communication, a 
splendor of the material, the intellectual, the philosophic forces of mankind not 
even yet faintly dreamed of. 

"Whatever the future 'may produce out of this great reopening and reawaken- 
ing of ancient Asia, it is the opportunity now, as it is the duty now, of the United 
States to secure for herself a resting i)lace for her navies, for her armies, for her 
trade and commerce, for her civilization, for her arts and industry, on the other 
side of the Pacific Ocean in close proximity to the coast of Asia. 

"As against the wonderful ])ossibilities of the future, as against the splendid 
destinies of our people and our nation, as against our final supremacy on the waters 
of the Pacific Ocean in the conflict of civilization, in the combat of races, in the 
growth of trade and commerce in peaceful amity, in the inspiration to higher art 
and higher thought and nobler genius, I would brush aside the objections offered 
by the opponents of the greater America as mere loose chaff flying unguided 
in tlie winds. 

"Th(J dream of Columbus will soon be a realization. In 1492 he sailed west- 



THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN EXPANSION". 681 

ward from Spain to reach the East Indies. The country wliich he discovered and 
added to the map of the world has now reached to the East Indies, and within 
a few days, or years at most, another Columbus, sailing westward .from Spain to 
find the East Indies, will discover that greater America has already begun to pro- 
vide a route by which a ship can sail from Spain westward to the East Indies 
through an isthmian canal, and to a government placed upon the Philippine 
Islands of liberty, of love, and of strength by the United States of America, which 
set up the first independent and liberty-serving government for itself on the 
continent which Columbus had discovered. 

"And when this second Columbus shall sail he may stop with his vessel for 
supplies at the Island of Porto Rico, a possession of our country; he may pass 
through the Nicaragua Canal, under the control of our country; he can stop at 
the HaM'aiian Islands, a part of our land; he can stop at the Ladrone Islands, 
belonging to us, and he can reach the Philippines and still be under the flag of 
the country which the first Cohnubus made known to the world. 

"We shall take no steps backward. The treaty has been ratified. The Amer- 
ican flag will never come down from Manila. It will not remain flying there because 
we are afraid to haul down the flag when it ought to be hauled down. It will 
not remain there because mere sentiment prevents us from hauling down tlie 
flag when once raised; but the flag will remain flying there because it is for the 
interest of all parties, because it is for the benefit of humanity, because it is a 
part of the plan of Divine Providence which, in some mysterious way, governs 
the destinies of the nations. 

"It will not remain there because we dare not haul it down, but because we 
dare to keep it flying and dare to face the problems which are before us. 

"May God give us the courage and the heart, the wisdom and soul, to properly 
administer enlightened government with intelligent progress in the more than 
4,000,000 square miles, on both sides of the ocean, constituting the newer and 
the greater America." 



4 



